Relaxation in the Chinese Hukou System: Effects on Psychosocial Wellbeing of Children Affected by Migration

The hukou household registration system in China is being relaxed in small and medium-sized cities, which makes it easier for migrant worker parents to take their children with them to cities for work. The aim of this study was determine the potential impact on psychological well-being of this change for children by migration and hukou status. We conducted a cross-sectional survey using the Chinese version of the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) in urban and migrant schools in the capital, Hangzhou, and in schools in two rural counties of Zhejiang Province. Completed questionnaires were obtained from 2965 children, aged 10 to 15: 867 urban children with urban hukou, 625 migrant children with rural hukou, 695 rural children with rural hukou living with parents, and 778 left behind children. The crude SDQ scores showed that children directly affected by migration (migrant children and left behind children) were most at risk of psychological problems; urban and rural children living with their parents in their accustomed environment were least vulnerable. After adjustment for confounders, migrant children were the most vulnerable to psychological problems. Given that migration with children is on the increase, efforts should be made to improve conditions in urban areas for these children, and especially to ensure access to urban public schools.

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Education of Left-Behind Children and Return Decisions of Migrant Workers in China

International Journal of Economics and Finance ◽

10.5539/ijef.v10n6p36 ◽

2018 ◽

Vol 10 (6) ◽

pp. 36

Author(s):

Jianhua Wang ◽

Jia Wu

Keyword(s):

Public Schools ◽

Labor Force ◽

Migrant Workers ◽

Urban Areas ◽

Migrant Worker ◽

Migrant Children ◽

Optimal Decision ◽

School Age ◽

Left Behind ◽

To Receive

This paper uses a dynamic survey data of China labor force to explore the impacts of child education on their parents’ return decisions by means of constructing an empirical model. The migration situation of children is the basis for us to distinguish the sample migrant workers. And those migrants who migrate with their children and those who leave their children behind in their hometowns are the two types of migrants among this model which we will analyze in urban areas. The results show that the probability for migrant workers in urban areas to return to hometowns will significantly increase when their children are left behind at home. While these parents tend to stay in the cities which they work and live in when their left-behind children enter the school age. The data we use is from the China Labor Force Dynamics Survey and we establish a model to analyze the effects of left-behind children. The empirical results show that the probability for migrants to return to their hometowns will decrease by 20.8 % when their left-behind children enter the school age. To a large extent, the emergence of such a huge contrast may be the result of the optimal decision-making of migrant workers. And the phenomenon of large-scale “migrant worker shortage” caused by such mechanism has intensified in the labor market of coastal cities. And most of these cities have implemented relevant stringent admission policies for migrant children to receive education in urban public schools and this break the intentions of the immigrant parents who plan to take the left-behind children to the cities to receive education in local schools. And these immigrants choose to return in the case of decline of the family net income.

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Addressing migrants’ well-being during COVID-19: An analysis of Chinese communities’ heritage language schools in Germany

Migration Studies ◽

10.1093/migration/mnaa033 ◽

2020 ◽

Author(s):

Zi Wang

Keyword(s):

Public Schools ◽

Urban Areas ◽

Social Life ◽

Heritage Language ◽

Positive Impact ◽

Information Access ◽

Well Being ◽

School Closure ◽

Vulnerable Groups ◽

Educational Programmes

Abstract The coronavirus pandemic and the ensuing lockdown affected social life in every regard. In critical times, the well-being of vulnerable groups is often at stake. Migrants represent a case in point because language barriers and the lack of social networks impede their seeking help from public institutions and information access. In migration policy and research, current attention overwhelmingly focusses on COVID-19’s impact on travel restrictions and healthcare. This article contributes a new perspective by demonstrating how migrants’ well-being needs (understood as emotions and sense of achievement) in education during the COVID-19-induced school closure were addressed by community educational organisations. Focussing on the Chinese community in Germany, data were collected in Chinese heritage language (CHL) schools from three urban areas. This article argues that CHL schools’ reaction to public schools’ closure had a positive impact on their members’ well-being. Such organisations achieved this by expanding their educational programmes during and after the lockdown. These measures ensured continuity in migrant children’s education beyond the realm of heritage language instruction, while enabling migrant parents to seek employment as the economy reopened. Overall, the results of this study underscore the potential of community organisations’ educational programmes in maintaining migrants’ well-being, especially in trying times.

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SEPARATED KIN: RURAL-URBAN MIGRATION AND MENTAL HEALTH TRAJECTORIES OF OLDER ADULTS LEFT BEHIND IN RURAL CHINA

Innovation in Aging ◽

10.1093/geroni/igz038.3223 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 3 (Supplement_1) ◽

pp. S880-S880

Author(s):

Zhiyong Lin

Keyword(s):

Mental Health ◽

Older Adults ◽

Depressive Symptoms ◽

Rural China ◽

Well Being ◽

Migrant Children ◽

Urban Migration ◽

Left Behind ◽

Rate Of Increase ◽

The Impact

Abstract As the processes of urbanization and globalization have intensified across the world, a burgeoning literature has documented the impact of emigration on the health of family members left behind in emigrant communities. Although the association between children’s migration and parental well-being is well documented, few have examined the health implications of children’s migration in the milieu of multiple children and further differentiated between children’s short-term and long-term migration. Therefore, I argue that it is not the geographic locality of a single child but the composition of all children’s location that matters. I further suggest that the impact of children’s migration on parental wellbeing is conditioned on the duration of children’s migration. Using a six waves longitudinal data (2001-2015) collected in rural China, this paper compares mental health (measured as depressive symptoms) trajectories of old adults (aged 60 and older) across different compositions of local and migrant children over a 14-year span. Results from growth curve models show that parents having more migrant children relative to local children experience a more rapid increase in depressive symptoms. In addition, older adults who have their most children migrate away for three or more waves of data have experienced the steepest rate of increase in depressive symptoms. These findings provide new evidence to support the life course processes of mental health disparities among older adults from the perspective of intergenerational proximity.

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Adult Child Migration and Elderly Multidimensional Well-Being: Comparative Analysis Between Moldova and Georgia

Research on Aging ◽

10.1177/0164027517723077 ◽

2017 ◽

Vol 40 (7) ◽

pp. 599-622

Author(s):

Michaella Vanore ◽

Melissa Siegel ◽

Franziska Gassmann ◽

Jennifer Waidler

Keyword(s):

Comparative Analysis ◽

Country Of Origin ◽

Adult Child ◽

Well Being ◽

Migrant Children ◽

Elderly Individuals ◽

Left Behind ◽

Elderly Parent ◽

Child Migration ◽

The Relationship

Despite growing concern over the potential consequences of migration for the “left behind,” few systematic attempts have been made to document the relationship between the migration of an adult child and the well-being of his or her elderly parent(s) remaining in the country of origin. This article proposes a multidimensional elderly well-being index that enables the identification and comparison of outcomes between elderly individuals with and without adult migrant children in Moldova and Georgia, two former Soviet states that are both experiencing demographic and mobility transitions. The outcomes of elderly individuals with and without children living abroad are compared to illustrate in what domains child absence through migration corresponds to differing well-being outcomes. The findings suggest that the migration of an adult child is not as significant a factor in shaping well-being outcomes as would be expected based on past literature; other factors may play much stronger roles in shaping of well-being.

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Community-Based Intervention to Improve the Well-Being of Children Left Behind by Migrant Parents in Rural China

International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health ◽

10.3390/ijerph17197218 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 17 (19) ◽

pp. 7218

Author(s):

Minmin Jiang ◽

Lu Li ◽

Wei Xing Zhu ◽

Therese Hesketh

Keyword(s):

School Performance ◽

Migrant Worker ◽

Low Cost ◽

Rural China ◽

Psychosocial Problems ◽

Well Being ◽

Community Based ◽

Local Leadership ◽

Left Behind ◽

Children Left Behind

In rural China around 60 million left-behind children (LBC) experience prolonged separation from migrant worker parents. They are vulnerable to a range of psychosocial problems. The aim of this study was to determine whether a community-based intervention consisting of Children’s Centres can improve psychosocial well-being and school performance of these children. The intervention was carried out in 20 villages, for children aged 7 to 15 years, irrespective of left-behind status. Nine hundred and twenty children, 438 LBC and 256 children living with parents (RC) attended the Centres. At follow-up after one year, there were improvements compared to baseline in total difficulties (measured with the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire) in children left behind by both parents (p = 0.009), children left behind by one parent (p = 0.008) and RC (p = 0.05). Postintervention school performance significantly improved in both categories of LBC (p < 0.001), but not RC (p = 0.07); social support score increased in both categories of LBC (p < 0.001) and RC (p = 0.01). Findings from interviews with key stakeholders were overwhelmingly positive about the impacts. With strong local leadership and community motivation, a low-cost intervention can improve children’s psychosocial well-being in these settings. Allowing communities to adapt the model to their own situation fosters local ownership, commitment, with benefits for children, parents, carers, and communities.

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Effects of Labour Mobility: An Analysis of Recent International Development Literature

International Indigenous Policy Journal ◽

10.18584/iipj.2013.4.3.3 ◽

2013 ◽

Vol 4 (3) ◽

Author(s):

Manolo Abella

Keyword(s):

First Nations ◽

International Development ◽

Urban Areas ◽

Large Body ◽

Well Being ◽

Survival Strategies ◽

Sources Of Information ◽

Know How ◽

Left Behind ◽

Aboriginal Populations

Successive censuses have shown that the Aboriginal populations of Canada are very mobile with strong tendencies to move to urban areas, but little is known about the consequences of these circular movements on the development of First Nations, the welfare of individual members and their families, and the costs and benefits to their larger communities. This article reviews the large body of literature on the nexus between mobility and development of countries in the developing world with a view to developing insights that may be relevant to the development of First Nation communities. While there are clear differences, the two contexts may be similar enough – in terms of socio-economic well-being, service levels, and institutional barriers to socio-economic development – for such analysis to contribute to understanding the effects of migration on the migrants themselves, their households, and their communities and countries of origin. The experience of developing countries suggest that there are positive gains not only in earnings but also in education and health for those who move internally and more so for those able to move internationally, even if there remain some concerns about negative effects on migrants’ families left behind, especially on the children. What seems clear is that migration plays an important role in family survival strategies. Money migrants send home finance the education of children, enable better health care, and improve housing. They shield migrants’ families against all kinds of “shocks”. However, emigration may reduce the human capital stock (brain drain), thus adversely affecting productivity. The loss of health professionals can set back critical medical services in remote communities, and disrupt formal and informal systems for transferring know-how. These “spill-over effects” or externalities on origin communities can be significant, imposing burdens on those left behind. Finally, the article looks at how diaspora communities have served as sources of information, linkages, or networks with businesses, markets for sovereign bonds, mediums for the transfer of technology and know-how, and a market for tourism.

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Recursive Male Out-migration and the Consequences at Source: A Systematic Review with Special Reference to the Left-behind Women

Space and Culture India ◽

10.20896/saci.v5i3.289 ◽

2018 ◽

Vol 5 (3) ◽

pp. 30 ◽

Cited By ~ 1

Author(s):

Shatabdi Saha ◽

Rupak Goswami ◽

Sujit Kumar Paul

Keyword(s):

Systematic Review ◽

Urban Areas ◽

Social Transformation ◽

Cultural Context ◽

Social Process ◽

Well Being ◽

Future Research ◽

Women Empowerment ◽

Clear Trend ◽

Left Behind

Male out-migration from rural to urban areas has amplified worldwide in the face of economic globalisation. Migration literature for long has engaged with the life of migrants at the destination and their support for the left-behind families in the form of remittances. Explicit scholastic undertaking for the left-behind women and their life experiences has started to receive attention only recently. We take stock of the existing literature to examine this social process and debate it within a women empowerment-disempowerment framework. Following a systematic review of the ‘migration left-behind nexus’ literature, we find a clear trend of transformation in the gender role of women everywhere, especially in the form of ‘feminisation of agriculture’. This process is largely moderated by the nature and amount of remittances received at source. The resultant well-being and empowerment of women is shaped by the socio-cultural context within which migration takes place. Both positive and/or negative outcomes for left-behind women are recorded in the literature, although its choice as a conscious decision and its subsequent permanence in a society is debatable. We expect a deeper engagement of future research that takes up the migration-led women empowerment issue within the context of the general social transformation process.

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Little Wish Little Wish (小小的渴望(艺术节版)

Migration Mobility & Displacement ◽

10.18357/mmd22201616119 ◽

2016 ◽

Vol 2 (2) ◽

Author(s):

Heng Sun

Keyword(s):

Migrant Workers ◽

Migrant Children ◽

Music Teacher ◽

City Centre ◽

Chinese Society ◽

Rural Children ◽

Art Gallery ◽

Left Behind ◽

National Statistics ◽

Spring Festival

Since 1978, many rural Chinese have migrated to cities for new opportunities. According to national statistics, in 2009 there were about 200 million migrant workers in China, as well as about 100 million children who have been affected by migration, including migrant children and left-behind rural children. The Beijing Migrant Workers Home (Home) is a labour NGO established to make the issue of children affected by migration visible in Chinese society, while empowering migrant children through communication.Little Wish was produced by Sun Heng, a leader of Home in 2009. In that year Home launched the Cultural and Art Festival for Migrant Workers in January and September, and a Festival for migrant children in June. This video is meant to carry the spirit of this festival to migrant children online.All pictures and videos from the film come from migrant children who live in Pi village. Pi village, far from Beijing’s City Centre, has 10,000 migrant workers living in 1,600 households. In 2005 Home established an elementary school there and now over 800 migrant children aged 6-12 go there. In 2008, Home launched a photography project for migrant children. They gathered old cameras and trained and encouraged children to express themselves by photographing their lives, families, schools, and dreams. Many children in Pi Village participated in this project, and afterwards Home displayed the photos at an art gallery, while Sun Heng edited the pictures to produce this video.The song was written by Duan Yu, a music teacher at Home’s school in Pi Village. It reflects her strong feelings for her students. She preformed the song, alongside migrant children at the 2016 Spring Festival Gala for and by Migrant Workers (打工春晚).

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Left-Behind Children and Risk of Unintentional Injury in Rural China—A Cross-Sectional Survey

International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health ◽

10.3390/ijerph16030403 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 16 (3) ◽

pp. 403 ◽

Cited By ~ 5

Author(s):

Sha Ma ◽

Minmin Jiang ◽

Feng Wang ◽

Jingjing Lu ◽

Lu Li ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Risk Factors ◽

Injury Risk ◽

Migrant Worker ◽

Rural China ◽

Unintentional Injury ◽

Chinese Government ◽

Cross Sectional Survey ◽

Virtual Absence ◽

Left Behind ◽

Increased Risk

Unintentional injury is the leading cause of childhood death and disability in many countries worldwide. This study aimed to quantify rates and risk factors for childhood unintentional injury in areas of rural China, where many children are left behind by migrant worker parents. We administered a questionnaire to children aged 9 to 15, in 56 schools in five counties in Zhejiang and Guizhou provinces. Of the 3791 respondents, 44% lived with both parents, 23% with one parent, and 33% with neither. Around half the children (47.9%) had suffered at least one unintentional injury in the past year, with burns (26%), animal bites (20%) and mechanical injury (18%) the most common. Left-behind children had no increased risk of unintentional injury, but children living in poorer Guizhou (p = 0.001), of divorced parents (p = 0.02), and less well-educated mothers (p = 0.02) were associated with higher risk. Virtual absence of personal level risk factors highlights the importance of addressing environmental risk to reduce childhood injury. The findings have informed a community-based intervention to reduce injury risk through raising awareness of environmental hazards, and through removal of specific hazards. Importantly, the Chinese government should ensure that known effective interventions are subject to legislation and enforcement.

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School Engagement as Predictors of Academic Achievement of the Left-Behind Children in Henan Province, China

Asian Social Science ◽

10.5539/ass.v15n7p16 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 15 (7) ◽

pp. 16

Author(s):

Wang Xiani ◽

Priyadarshini Muthukrishnan ◽

Gurnam Kaur Sidhu

Keyword(s):

Academic Achievement ◽

School Engagement ◽

Urban Areas ◽

Rapid Development ◽

Well Being ◽

Henan Province ◽

Left Behind ◽

Behavioural Engagement ◽

The Impact ◽

Predictors Of Academic Achievement

With the expansion of industrialisation and rapid development of economy in China, migration of the rural population to the urban areas in seek of employment has resulted in changes in the family structure and increased number of left-behind children (LBC) in China. Numerous studies on LBC have concluded the critical issues among the children related to their overall well- being and their performance at school. The current study aimed to investigate the impact of emotional, cognitive and behavioural engagement of the LBC on the academic achievement of the left behind children. Quantitative research method was used and the sample were 186 left- behind children in Henan Province, China. To measure school engagement, the instrument developed by Finlay (2006) was used. Correlation and hierarchical multiple regression analyses were conducted to examine the relationship between the various predictors and academic achievement. The findings concluded that emotional, cognitive and behavioural engagement of the LBC at school were significantly correlated with academic achievement. The hierarchical regression findings concluded that emotional engagement (β= .268; t= 3.593, p<0.000, cognitive engagement (β= .245; t= 3.284, p<0.000 and care takers (β= .132; t= 2.009, p<0.05) were significant predictors of academic achievement of the LBC.

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