scholarly journals Current Effects of Cyanobacteria Toxin in Water Sources and Containers in the Hartbeespoort Dam Area, South Africa.

2019 ◽  
Vol 16 (22) ◽  
pp. 4468
Author(s):  
Mokoena ◽  
Mukhola
Keyword(s):  
South Africa ◽  
Water Samples ◽  
Tap Water ◽  
Water Storage ◽  
Water Sources ◽  
Acceptable Limit ◽  
Community Water ◽  
Test Kit ◽  
Storage Containers

The study investigated the effects of cyanobacteria toxins such as microcystins in water sources and water stored in containers during its blooming and decaying seasons. Samples from water sources and containers near the Hartbeespoort Dam in South Africa were analysed using a microcystin ELIZA test kit. Microcystins were present in water sources used by the community, with an average of 4.3 μg/L in communal tap water and 4.8 μg/L in the water stored in tanks. The concentration of microcystins was lower in groundwater in the decaying season (0.38 μg/L) than in the blooming season (1.4 μg/L). Although microcystins were present in the storage containers, the average levels in all water samples were below the acceptable limit of 1 μg/L. The present study confirmed the presence of microcystins in the water storage containers. Therefore, it is suggested that water used for drinking from community water sources should be treated before storage to eliminate microcystins.

scholarly journals Status of water sources, hygiene and sanitation and its impact on the health of households of Makwane Village, Limpopo Province, South Africa

2020 ◽  
Author(s):  
P Budeli ◽  
RC Moropeng ◽  
L Mpenyana-Monyatsi ◽  
I Kamika ◽  
MNB Momba
Keyword(s):  
South Africa ◽  
Drinking Water ◽  
Water Storage ◽  
Water Sources ◽  
Limpopo Province ◽  
Personal Hygiene ◽  
Open Defecation ◽  
Hygiene Practices ◽  
Improved Sanitation ◽  
Storage Containers

ABSTRACTThe key to reducing or even eradicating the burden of waterborne diseases is through appropriate sanitation facilities and piped water systems. Installation of centralised system may take decades to be established, especially in impoverished rural communities of African countries. A survey of 88 households representing Makwane, a scattered settlement in South Africa, Limpopo Province, was conducted to assess the status of basic services. A questionnaire was designed to obtain the required information, such as improved water sources, improved sanitation facilities, hygiene practices and incidence of diarrhoeal diseases in the community. A house-to-house survey was conducted from July to August in 2014 and data were collected from the heads of each household. Results of the survey revealed a complete absence of improved drinking water sources in the community (100%). People rely on any available water sources such stream water, or on rainwater harvesting. Safe hygiene practices were observed in most households with regards to water storage as they store water in 25 L plastic buckets (57%), vessels stored inside a room (76%), use storage containers covered with a lid (76%) and wash these containers at any time prior to storing water (39%). Results also indicated a high percentage of households not treating water (81%) prior to use, disposing wastewater in the yard (97%), lacking access to improved sanitation facilities (41%), and not allowing children under 12 years old to use the toilets (62%). As a result, they practise open defecation as an alternative sanitation facility (86%). The main water source for the community was found to be the stream (31%) and this source is used for adequate personal hygiene in terms of full body bath (94%). In terms of health outcomes, the most prevalent health problem was found to be diarrhoea (75%), which occurred mostly in children less than 5 years old and was found to persist up to 3 days (34%). The community generally visited the clinic (75%) in cases of health problems. The implementation of point-of-use household drinking water treatment in Makwane households for the production of safe drinking water is highly recommended. In addition to this, a special education with emphasis on drinking water storage, cleaning of water storage containers and safe disposal of wastewater should be offered. Open defecation should also be discouraged to mitigate the bacterial contamination of water sources and transmission of diseases.

scholarly journals Characterisation of mobile colistin resistance genes (mcr-3 and mcr-5) in river and storm water in regions of the Western Cape of South Africa

2021 ◽  
Vol 10 (1) ◽  
Author(s):  
Yolandi Snyman ◽  
Andrew C. Whitelaw ◽  
Jo M. Barnes ◽  
Motlatji R. B. Maloba ◽  
Mae Newton-Foot
Keyword(s):  
South Africa ◽  
Water Samples ◽  
Pathogenic Bacteria ◽  
Multidrug Resistant ◽  
Water Sources ◽  
Storm Water ◽  
Gene Variants ◽  
Western Cape ◽  
Colistin Resistance ◽  
Three Rivers

Abstract Background Colistin is regarded as a last-resort antimicrobial against multi-drug resistant Gram-negative bacteria (GNB), therefore the dissemination of colistin resistance in the environment is of great concern. Horizontal transfer of mobile colistin resistance (mcr) genes to potential pathogens poses a serious problem. This study aimed to describe the presence of colistin resistant GNB and mcr genes in river and storm water in regions of the Western Cape. Methods Water samples were collected from three rivers during May 2019 and January 2020 and two storm water samples were collected in November 2019. Colistin resistant GNB were cultured on MacConkey agar containing colistin and identified by MALDI-TOF. Colistin resistance was confirmed using broth microdilution (BMD). mcr-1-5 genes were detected by PCR performed directly on the water samples and on the colistin resistant isolates. mcr functionality was assessed by BMD after cloning the mcr genes into pET-48b(+) and expression in SHuffle T7 E. coli. Results mcr-5.1 and various mcr-3 gene variants were detected in the Plankenburg-, Eerste- and Berg rivers and in storm water from Muizenberg, and only mcr-5.1 was detected in storm water from Fish Hoek. Colistin resistant GNB were isolated from all of the water sources. Aeromonas spp. were the most common colistin resistant organisms detected in the water sources; 25% (6/24) of colistin resistant Aeromonas spp. isolated from the Berg river contained novel mcr-3 variants; mcr-3.33 (n = 1), mcr-3.34 (n = 1) mcr-3.35 (n = 1) mcr-3.36 (n = 2) and mcr-3.37 (n = 1), which were confirmed to confer colistin resistance. Conclusions The mcr-5.1 and mcr-3 colistin resistance gene variants were present in widely dispersed water sources in regions of the Western Cape. The mcr genes were only detected in water sampled downstream of and alongside communities, suggesting that their presence is driven by human influence/contamination. This is the first documentation of mcr-3 and mcr-5 gene variants in any setting in South Africa. Spill-over of these genes to communities could result in horizontal gene transfer to pathogenic bacteria, exacerbating the challenge of controlling multidrug resistant GNB infections.

scholarly journals Heavy metal levels in drinking water sources of Chingola District, Zambia

2020 ◽  
Author(s):  
Francis Hamwiinga ◽  
Chisala D. Meki ◽  
Patricia Mubita ◽  
Hikabasa Halwiindi
Keyword(s):  
Heavy Metals ◽  
Heavy Metal ◽  
Drinking Water ◽  
Ground Water ◽  
Water Samples ◽  
Tap Water ◽  
Water Sources ◽  
Wet Season ◽  
Drinking Water Sources ◽  
Metal Levels

Abstract Background: One of the factors impeding access to safe water is water pollution. Of particular concern is heavy metal contamination of water bodies. This study was aimed at determining the levels of heavy metals in drinking water sources of Chingola District of Zambia. Methods: A cross sectional study was employed. A total of 60 water samples were collected. Thirsty (30) samples were collected in the dry season in the month of October 2016 and another 30 in the wet season in the months of February and March, 2017. For each season 10 water samples were collected from each of the three water sources. i.e. Tap water, Urban ground water sources and Rural ground water sources. Heavy metal analysis was done using Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (AAS).Results: This study revealed that the concentrations of Iron, Manganese, Lead, Nickel and Arsenic were beyond maximum permissible levels in various water sources. Combined averages for both dry and wet seasons were as follows: Iron: 2.3, Copper: 0.63, Cobalt: 0.02, Manganese: 0.36, Lead: 0.04, Zinc:3.2, Nickel: 0.03, Arsenic: 0.05. Chromium and Cadmium were below detection limit in all water samples. The median concentrations of iron, arsenic, copper, manganese in drinking water from the Tap, rural and urban ground water sources were different, and this difference was statistically significant (p<0.05). The median concentrations of arsenic, nickel, manganese and cobalt were different between dry and wet season, and this difference was statistically significant (p<0.05).Conclusions: Sources of heavy metals in water seems to be both natural and from human activities. The concentration of heavy metals in different water sources in this study was found to be above the recommended levels. This calls for improvement in water monitoring to protect the health of the public. Therefore, there is need for continuous monitoring of heavy metals in drinking water sources by regulatory authorities.

scholarly journals Diversity, virulence and antibiogram traits of Escherichia coli recovered from potable water sources in Gharbia, Egypt

2020 ◽  
Vol 18 (3) ◽  
pp. 430-438
Author(s):  
Walid Elmonir ◽  
Etab Mohamed Abo Remela ◽  
Yasmine Alwakil
Keyword(s):  
Public Health ◽  
Escherichia Coli ◽  
Water Samples ◽  
Potable Water ◽  
Multiple Drug Resistance ◽  
Tap Water ◽  
Water Sources ◽  
Multiple Drug ◽  
Well Water ◽  
E Coli

Abstract This study aimed to assess the public health risk of coliforms and Escherichia coli contamination of potable water sources in Egypt. A total of 150 water samples (100 tap and 50 well) were collected from five districts in Gharbia governorate, Egypt. High rates of coliforms contamination were recorded in 52 and 76% of examined tap and well water samples, respectively. E. coli strains were detected in 16% of the water samples (15% tap water and 18% well water; 23.7% rural and 8.1% urban). Rural water sources were 3.5 times more likely to be contaminated than urban sources (P = 0.01). Eight (33.3%) E. coli isolates were Shiga toxin-producing E. coli (STEC). Multiple drug resistance (MDR) was observed for 62.5% of the isolates. Seven (29.2%) E. coli isolates harboured at least one of the extended-spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL) genes. The majority (87.5%) of the STEC isolates were MDRs and harboured ESBL genes. STEC isolates were significantly more likely to resist six classes of antibiotics than non-STEC isolates. This is the first report of potable water contamination with MDR-STEC in Egypt. This study highlights an alarming public health threat that necessitates preventive interventions for public and environmental safety.

scholarly journals Quantification and molecular characterisation of human sapoviruses in water sources impacted by highly polluted discharged wastewater in South Africa

2015 ◽  
Vol 13 (4) ◽  
pp. 1055-1059 ◽  
Author(s):  
Tanya Y. Murray ◽  
Maureen B. Taylor
Keyword(s):  
South Africa ◽  
Wastewater Treatment ◽  
Water Samples ◽  
Water Sources ◽  
Limpopo Province ◽  
Molecular Characterisation ◽  
High Concentrations

Sapoviruses (SaVs) were detected and quantified in 8/10 water samples collected from wastewater treatment works (WWTWs) and water sources impacted by these WWTWs in Limpopo Province, South Africa. The median SaV concentration was 2.45 × 106 copies/L and SaV genotypes I.2 and IV were characterised. This study provides new data on the high concentrations of clinically relevant SaVs in rivers and dams impacted by poor-performing WWTWs.

scholarly journals Stable Isotope Reveals Tap Water Source under Different Water Supply Modes in the Eastern Margin of the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau

Water ◽  
2019 ◽  
Vol 11 (12) ◽  
pp. 2578
Author(s):  
Mingxia Du ◽  
Mingjun Zhang ◽  
Shengjie Wang ◽  
Hongfei Meng ◽  
Cunwei Che ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Surface Water ◽  
Water Supply ◽  
Water Samples ◽  
Tap Water ◽  
Water Source ◽  
Water Sources ◽  
Tibet Plateau ◽  
Water Isotopes ◽  
Source Water ◽  
Qinghai Tibet Plateau

Based on 1260 tap water samples gathered monthly and 136 surface water samples collected seasonally in the eastern margin of the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau, the local tap water line, the basic spatiotemporal characteristics of tap water isotopes, and their indication for water source under different water supply modes were discussed, linking the local tap water supply and water source information. A new tap water isotopes data set based on dense sampling sites was established, which was reliable for the analysis of tap water isotope features, tap water supply management, and tap water sources. The main conclusions are: (1) The local tap water lines in Gannan and Longnan are δ2H = (7.06 ± 0.17) δ18O + (3.24 ± 1.75) (r2 = 0.81, p < 0.01) and δ2H = (5.66 ± 0.09) δ18O + (−8.12 ± 0.82) (r2 = 0.82, p < 0.01), respectively. (2) The annual mean δ2H and δ18O in tap water show an increasing trend from southwest to northeast. The seasonal differences of δ2H and δ18O in tap water in Gannan and Longnan are small. (3) The correlation of tap water isotopes with those in main source water is high, while that of isotopes in tap water with those in non-water source is low. Under the central water supply mode by local tap water company, tap water isotopes in Gannan where groundwater is the direct water source show weak connection with those in surface water and precipitation, and those in tap water in Longnan with surface water as main source water reveal good connection with isotopes in surface water. Under mixed water supply modes, tap water isotopes indicate that surface water is the main tap water source in Gannan and Longnan with multiple water sources.

scholarly journals Investigations on Bacteriological Quality of Tap Water Sources within the University of Port Harcourt

2019 ◽  
pp. 1-5
Author(s):  
H. O. Stanley ◽  
C. J. Ugboma ◽  
P. C. Uzoaru
Keyword(s):  
Water Samples ◽  
Membrane Filtration ◽  
Heterotrophic Bacteria ◽  
Tap Water ◽  
Total Coliform ◽  
Water Sources ◽  
Filtration Method ◽  
Port Harcourt ◽  
The University

In this study, the sanitary quality of tap water sources within the University of Port Harcourt was investigated in order to determine its suitability for drinking and other domestic applications. Eight composite samples of tap water were collected from Eight different locations within the three campuses of the University of Port Harcourt using 300 ml-capacity sterile containers. These locations included NDDC Hostel, Sports Hostel, Medical Hostel, NUH Hostel, Dan Etete Hostel, Delta A Hostel, Delta B Hostel and Choba Campus. After collection, water samples were taken to the laboratory for enumeration and identification of Total heterotrophic bacteria (THB), Total coliform (TC) and Faecal coliform (FC) using the membrane filtration method. Result showed that the average THB, TC and FC counts recorded in the tap water samples across the eight locations ranged from 12.4 CFU to 36.7 CFU, 4.3 CFU to 10.1 CFU and 2.8 CFU to 5.2 CFU per 100ml respectively. Bacterial isolates were identified as probably belonging to genera such as Bacillus spp., Klebsiella spp., Enterobacter spp., Staphylococcus spp., Proteus spp., Citrobacter spp., Serratia spp. and Escherichia spp., respectively. Samples from Delta B hostel and Choba campus recorded the lowest and highest THB, TC and FC counts respectively. According to WHO standard, the result of THB, TC and FC counts indicated that the tap water in all eight locations were above the limit acceptable for drinking but within acceptable limit for other domestic use such as bathing and washing.

scholarly journals Influence of Water Supply Conditions and Water Storage Containers on Aedes Mosquito Abundance in Makassar City, Indonesia

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
Ruslan La Ane ◽  
Von Ralph Dane M. Herbuela ◽  
Isra Wahid ◽  
Andi Susilawaty ◽  
Hasanuddin Ishak ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Water Supply ◽  
Structural Equation ◽  
Tap Water ◽  
Water Storage ◽  
Significant Negative Correlation ◽  
High Water ◽  
Equation Modeling ◽  
Mosquito Abundance ◽  
Piped Water ◽  
Storage Containers

Abstract Background: High water demand accompanied with an unreliable piped water supply has forced urban residents to store water in containers. This situation potentially increases the number of breeding sites for mosquito vectors, such as Aedes. Method: This study aimed to test the hypothesis if piped water connection availability, tap water use, and highly stable tap water supply can help minimize the use of water storage containers as well as the presence of larvae and number of adult Aedes mosquitoes. We conducted a community-based entomological survey of 343 households from 36 neighborhoods or Rukun Tetangga in Makassar City, Indonesia. Our model based on the hypothesis was tested by piecewise structural equation modeling analysis. Results: A significant negative correlation was found between the stability of tap water supply and the number of water storage containers (−0.16, P < 0.05). Of the two categories of water storage containers, the unintentional water storage containers demonstrated a significantly (P < 0.001) higher effect on larval prevalence than the intentional one. Further, both container categories have significant indirect effects on the number of adult mosquitoes mediated by larval presence. Conclusion: Improving water supply condition, particularly by assuring a stable tap water supply, could minimize the use of intentional water storage containers. Furthermore, a regular community-wide health education program that targets the elimination of unintentional water storage containers, which can be breeding grounds for Aedes larvae mosquitoes, is necessary.

scholarly journals Physico-Chemical Analysis of Water Sources in Awka-urban, Anambra State

2020 ◽  
Vol 5 (6) ◽  
pp. 363-365
Author(s):  
Prof. Anthony N. Eze
Keyword(s):  
Electrical Conductivity ◽  
Experimental Research ◽  
Water Samples ◽  
Tap Water ◽  
Nitrate Solution ◽  
Oxygen Demand ◽  
Water Sources ◽  
Total Hardness ◽  
Anambra State ◽  
Physico Chemical

The focus of this study was analyse the physico-chemical properties of water sources in Awka Urban, Anambra state. The water sources include bore well/hole water. It was an experimental research carried out in Awka metropolis between July 1, 2018 and October 10, 2018. The experimental research design was adopted. Five different villages in Awka were selected as sample area for the study. A total of 5 water samples from the area were collected using bottles. The bottles were washed with tap water with the aid of detergent and ethanol. The chemical parameters of the samples determined using standard method as soon as the samples got into the laboratory. HANNA Phep (model H 19) was used to determine the water PH. In the same manner, TDS/TEM meter was used to determine the water samples temperature. The electrical conductivity of the water samples was also determined using precalibrated conductivity meter model 611 in measuring the electrical conductivity. The titration method by means of EDTA solution was used to determine the total hardness of the collected water samples. The dichrometre refluction method was used to determine the chemical oxygen demand (COD) of the collected water samples. The alkali azide method was employed in the determination of the biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) of the water samples. The chlorides content of the water samples were determined using silver nitrate solution.

scholarly journals Evaluating the efficiency of chlorine removal from potable tap water using off-gassing, boiling, and filtration treatment methods

2018 ◽  
Author(s):  
Katrina Wong ◽  
BCIT School of Health Sciences, Environmental Health ◽  
Helen Heacock ◽  
Frederick Shaw
Keyword(s):  
Drinking Water ◽  
Water Samples ◽  
Tap Water ◽  
Water Sources ◽  
Free Chlorine ◽  
Chlorine Concentration ◽  
Taste And Odor ◽  
Untreated Water ◽  
Alternative Water ◽  
Alternative Water Sources

  Background: One of the most frequent complaints to water distribution systems is the taste and odor of chlorine in consumer tap water. Chlorine is a common disinfectant used to inactivate and breakdown microbes and other contaminants. However, excess chlorine can result in an unpalatable chlorinous taste and odor. When water taste becomes too objectionable, consumers may search for alternative water sources, such as raw, untreated water that does not contain chemical additives. Raw, untreated water contains various contaminants, including disease-causing pathogens. To encourage consumers to drink treated tap water, and prevent disease, this study evaluated and compared the effectiveness of off-gassing, boiling and filtration as dechlorination methods for consumers to perform on their tap water. Method: Hach Method 8021 was performed to collect and analyse water samples following treatment with Off-gassing, Boiling and Filtration. Water samples were collected from BCIT SW1-1230. The Hach Pocket Colorimeter ™ II determined the free chlorine concentration of the water samples, and compared to a sample of untreated chlorinated tap water to see which method reduced chlorine concentrations the most. Results: Mean concentration of chlorine following off-gassing was determined to be 0.51 ppm, 0.24 ppm following boiling, and 0.55 ppm following filtration. It was determined that the boiling method was statistically significantly different from the mean values of chlorine concentration from the other two methods, as shown by the Kruskal-wallis test (P=0.000), and therefore was the most effective in dechlorinating tap water samples. This was further confirmed by the Scheffe’s Mutliple-Comparison Test and eyeball test. Conclusion: Based on the results, boiling water is the most effective method to dechlorinate potable tap water for consumer acceptability. The free chlorine levels found post-boiling were also found to be below the WHO’s threshold for tasting and smelling chlorine in drinking water (0.3 ppm), and above WHO’s minimum required 0.2 ppm chlorine residual. Therefore, drinking water following boiling will be safe for consumption, as well as free of chlorinous taste and smell. Public Health professionals can safely advise consumers of an effective method to encourage treated tap water consumption, and to discourage finding alternative water sources.  

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