The COVID-19 Pandemic: A Comprehensive Review of Taxonomy, Genetics, Epidemiology, Diagnosis, Treatment, and Control

A pneumonia outbreak with unknown etiology was reported in Wuhan, Hubei province, China, in December 2019, associated with the Huanan Seafood Wholesale Market. The causative agent of the outbreak was identified by the WHO as the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2), producing the disease named coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19). The virus is closely related (96.3%) to bat coronavirus RaTG13, based on phylogenetic analysis. Human-to-human transmission has been confirmed even from asymptomatic carriers. The virus has spread to at least 200 countries, and more than 1,700,000 confirmed cases and 111,600 deaths have been recorded, with massive global increases in the number of cases daily. Therefore, the WHO has declared COVID-19 a pandemic. The disease is characterized by fever, dry cough, and chest pain with pneumonia in severe cases. In the beginning, the world public health authorities tried to eradicate the disease in China through quarantine but are now transitioning to prevention strategies worldwide to delay its spread. To date, there are no available vaccines or specific therapeutic drugs to treat the virus. There are many knowledge gaps about the newly emerged SARS-CoV-2, leading to misinformation. Therefore, in this review, we provide recent information about the COVID-19 pandemic. This review also provides insights for the control of pathogenic infections in humans such as SARS-CoV-2 infection and future spillovers.

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Investigation of the spread of brucellosis among human and animal populations in southeastern Bulgaria, 2007

Eurosurveillance ◽

10.2807/ese.14.17.19187-en ◽

2009 ◽

Vol 14 (17) ◽

Author(s):

V Tzaneva ◽

S Ivanova ◽

M Georgieva ◽

E Tasheva

Keyword(s):

Dairy Products ◽

Domestic Animals ◽

Effective Prevention ◽

Health Authorities ◽

Animal Populations ◽

Control Programmes ◽

Public Health Authorities ◽

Spread Of Infection ◽

And Control ◽

Positive Results

Three human cases of brucellosis were reported in summer 2007 in the region of Haskovo in southeastern Bulgaria. Subsequently, the regional veterinary and public health authorities carried out investigations to determine the spread of infection in domestic animals and in the human population. As a result, over 90,000 animals were tested, and 410 were found infected with brucellosis. The screening of 561 people believed to have been at risk of infection yielded 47 positive results. The majority of these persons had direct contact with domestic animals or had consumed unpasteurised dairy products. The investigations revealed evidence of disease among animals in the region and a considerable risk to humans, thus emphasising the need for effective prevention and control programmes.

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SARS: current overview, aetiology and epidemiology

Bosnian Journal of Basic Medical Sciences ◽

10.17305/bjbms.2003.3555 ◽

2003 ◽

Vol 3 (2) ◽

pp. 46-55

Author(s):

Semra Čavaljuga ◽

Michael Faulde ◽

Jerrold J. Scharninghausen

Keyword(s):

Public Health ◽

World Health Organisation ◽

The United States ◽

Air Travel ◽

World Health ◽

New Disease ◽

The Past ◽

Health Authorities ◽

The World ◽

Public Health Authorities

At this moment, public health authorities, physicians and scientists around the world are struggling to cope with a severe and rapidly spreading new disease in humans called severe acute respiratory syndrome, or SARS. According to World Health Organisation (WHO) this appears to be the first severe and easily transmissible new disease to emerge in the 21st century. Though much about the disease remains poorly understood, including the details of the causative virus, we do know that it has features that allow it to spread rapidly along international air travel routes. As of 10 May 2003, a cumulative 7296 probable SARS cases with 526 deaths have been reported from 30 countries on three continents (WHO, ProMED). In the past week, more than 1000 new probable cases and 96 deaths were reported globally. This represents an increase of 119 new cases and 8 new deaths compared with 9 May 2003 (China (85), Taiwan (23), and Hong Kong (7) represented the overwhelming majority, with one additional case each reported from France, Malaysia, Singapore, and the United States). Only in China, as of 10 May 2003 (WHO) total of 4884 with 235 deaths have been reported. Some outbreaks have reassuring features.

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Risk factors assessment of bovine tuberculosis among abattoir personnel in Gombe State, Northeastern Nigeria: A One-Health approach

International Journal of One Health ◽

10.14202/ijoh.2019.1-8 ◽

2019 ◽

pp. 1-8

Author(s):

S. Mohammed ◽

Adamu Saleh Saidu ◽

S. M. Jajere ◽

P. Tomar ◽

A. M. Wakil ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Public Health ◽

Risk Factors ◽

Bovine Tuberculosis ◽

Occupational Status ◽

Health Authorities ◽

Unpasteurized Milk ◽

Zoonotic Risk ◽

Public Health Authorities ◽

And Control ◽

Cooked Meat

Aim: Bovine tuberculosis (bTB) is an important milk-borne zoonosis that affects cattle production and poses serious threat to public health. This study aimed at assessing the risk factors as well as the level of awareness, attitude, and practices of abattoir personnel toward bTB in Gombe Township Abattoir, Gombe State. Materials and Methods: A prospective survey was conducted between October 2015 and December 2015. During the survey, a total of 112 close-ended structured questionnaires were administered to the abattoir personnel to assess their level of awareness of bTB. Results: Of these respondents, the majority were males (79%), butchers (49%) and about 40% were under the productive age brackets of 26-35 years. Majority of the respondents (85.7%) were aware of the zoonotic nature of the disease. However, only a few of the respondents (44.6%) wear personal protective equipments (PPEs) clothes while handling or in contact with carcasses during the slaughtering process. Only a few among the respondents (24.1% and 31.2%) consumed unpasteurized milk and unaware of eating of improperly cooked meat as a risk factor of bTB, respectively. About 75.7% of the respondents believed that the habit of eating and drinking inside the abattoir and during slaughtering operations has no any significant effects on their health. The results obtained show a statistically significant association between respondents' awareness of bTB and their occupational status, duration of exposure to cattle carcasses, and knowledge about the disease (p<0.05); and the odds of being aware of bTB was 10.0, 5.07, and 4.2, respectively. Conclusion: This study demonstrates the need for public health authorities to intervene in bTB prevention and control through the creation of avenues for enlightenment on the zoonotic risk associated with bTB. The risk factors associated with bTB transmission as indicated by the personnel's practice and awareness levels in Gombe township abattoir are preventable through the use of PPEs clothing.

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Reduction of the nosocomial meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus incidence density by a region-wide search and follow-strategy in forty German hospitals of the EUREGIO, 2009 to 2011

Eurosurveillance ◽

10.2807/1560-7917.es2013.18.36.20579 ◽

2013 ◽

Vol 18 (36) ◽

Cited By ~ 17

Author(s):

A Jurke ◽

R Köck ◽

K Becker ◽

S Thole ◽

R Hendrix ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Public Health ◽

Staphylococcus Aureus ◽

Screening Strategy ◽

Incidence Density ◽

Health Authorities ◽

Public Health Authorities ◽

Risk Patients ◽

And Control ◽

Successful Prevention ◽

Regional Surveillance

Meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) disseminates between hospitals serving one patient catchment area. Successful prevention and control requires concerted efforts and regional surveillance. Forty hospitals located in the German EUREGIO have established a network for combating MRSA. In 2007 they agreed upon a synchronised strategy for screening of risk patients and a standard for transmission-based precautions (search and follow). The same year, the hospitals started synchronised MRSA prevention and annually reporting MRSA-data to the public health authorities. The median rate of screening cultures per 100 patients admitted increased from 4.38 in 2007 to 34.4 in 2011 (p<0.0001). Between 2007 and 2011, the overall incidence density of MRSA (0.87 MRSA cases/1,000 patient days vs 1.54; p<0.0001) increased significantly. In contrast, both the incidence density of nosocomial MRSA cases (0.13 nosocomial MRSA cases/1,000 patient days in 2009 vs 0.08 in 2011; p=0.0084) and the MRSA-days-associated nosocomial MRSA rate (5.51 nosocomial MRSA cases/1,000 MRSA days in 2009 vs 3.80 in 2011; p=0.0437) decreased significantly after the second year of the project. We documented adherence to the regional screening strategy resulting in improved detection of MRSA carriers at admission. Subsequently, after two years the nosocomial MRSA-incidence density was reduced. Regional surveillance data, annually provided as benchmarking to the regional hospitals and public health authorities, indicated successful prevention.

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Improving Notifiable Disease Case Reporting Through Electronic Information Exchange–Facilitated Decision Support: A Controlled Before-and-After Trial

Public Health Reports ◽

10.1177/0033354920914318 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 135 (3) ◽

pp. 401-410

Author(s):

Brian E. Dixon ◽

Zuoyi Zhang ◽

Janet N. Arno ◽

Debra Revere ◽

P. Joseph Gibson ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Public Health ◽

Information Exchange ◽

Outbreak Detection ◽

Notifiable Disease ◽

Disease Reporting ◽

Health Authorities ◽

Before And After ◽

Public Health Authorities ◽

And Control ◽

Reporting Rates

Objective Outbreak detection and disease control may be improved by simplified, semi-automated reporting of notifiable diseases to public health authorities. The objective of this study was to determine the effect of an electronic, prepopulated notifiable disease report form on case reporting rates by ambulatory care clinics to public health authorities. Methods We conducted a 2-year (2012-2014) controlled before-and-after trial of a health information exchange (HIE) intervention in Indiana designed to prepopulate notifiable disease reporting forms to providers. We analyzed data collected from electronic prepopulated reports and “usual care” (paper, fax) reports submitted to a local health department for 7 conditions by using a difference-in-differences model. Primary outcomes were changes in reporting rates, completeness, and timeliness between intervention and control clinics. Results Provider reporting rates for chlamydia and gonorrhea in intervention clinics increased significantly from 56.9% and 55.6%, respectively, during the baseline period (2012) to 66.4% and 58.3%, respectively, during the intervention period (2013-2014); they decreased from 28.8% and 27.5%, respectively, to 21.7% and 20.6%, respectively, in control clinics ( P < .001). Completeness improved from baseline to intervention for 4 of 15 fields in reports from intervention clinics ( P < .001), although mean completeness improved for 11 fields in both intervention and control clinics. Timeliness improved for both intervention and control clinics; however, reports from control clinics were timelier (mean, 7.9 days) than reports from intervention clinics (mean, 9.7 days). Conclusions Electronic, prepopulated case reporting forms integrated into providers’ workflow, enabled by an HIE network, can be effective in increasing notifiable disease reporting rates and completeness of information. However, it was difficult to assess the effect of using the forms for diseases with low prevalence (eg, salmonellosis, histoplasmosis).

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SARS-CoV-2 and the Risk Assessment Document in Italian Work; Specific or Generic Risk Even If Aggravated?

International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health ◽

10.3390/ijerph18073729 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 18 (7) ◽

pp. 3729

Author(s):

Luigi Cirrincione ◽

Venerando Rapisarda ◽

Walter Mazzucco ◽

Rosanna Provenzano ◽

Emanuele Cannizzaro

Keyword(s):

Risk Assessment ◽

Health Planning ◽

World Health ◽

Atypical Pneumonia ◽

Work Activities ◽

Health Authorities ◽

The World ◽

Health Organization ◽

Health Legislation ◽

And Control

In December 2019, several cases of atypical pneumonia were detected in Wuhan city, Hubei province, inland China. The initial outbreak was of considerable size first in China subsequently spread to the rest of the world. Immediately after the epidemic (which according to the World Health Organization had risen to pandemic status), the problem of whether or not to update the occupational risk assessment arose, also considering how the biological risk from SARS CoV-2 should be understood: specific or generic. To this end, we conducted a literature review to identify national health legislation and policies, examining how Italy has addressed the COVID-19 emergency in occupational health planning, in order to develop considerations on the need to update the Risk Assessment Document following the pandemic status. The data that emerged from the review of current legislation allowed us to conclude that the risk from SARS-CoV-2 is in most work activities to be understood as a generic or aggravated generic risk, requiring the employer to apply and control the preventive measures suggested by health authorities to contain the spread of the virus.

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Does COVID-19 Take a Breath? The Chinese Current Situation

10.20944/preprints202104.0354.v1 ◽

2021 ◽

Author(s):

Abdul Qadeer ◽

Muhammad Sohail ◽

Ayesha Younas ◽

Haroon Iqbal ◽

Asif Ullah ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Public Health ◽

Acute Diarrhoea ◽

Health Concern ◽

Unknown Etiology ◽

Global Public Health ◽

Wholesale Market ◽

Genetic Studies ◽

Source Of Infection ◽

Genome Level ◽

Bat Coronavirus

Four new zoonotic coronaviruses outbreak occurred in the past two decades. The first coronavirus outbreak happened in 2003 and was named Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus-1 (SARS-CoV-1), followed by Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus (MERS-CoV) in 2013, and by Swine Acute Diarrhoea Syndrome (SADS) in 2017. In late December 2019, a patient from Wuhan Seafood Wholesale Market, China, was admitted to Huang's hospital with respiratory distress syndrome (RDS) of apparently unknown etiology, which later was diagnosed with SARS-CoV-2-induced coronavirus disease-19 (COVID-19). SARS-CoV-2 was identified from another clade within the subgenus Sarbecovirus of the genus Betacoronavirus. This new CoV variant showed 96.2% similarity at whole-genome level to bat coronavirus. Based on genetic studies, pangolin, bats, and snakes are suspected to be a possible intermediate host of this virus, but further research is in progress to determine how this virus appeared and what is the exact source of infection. The SARS-CoV-2 outbreak has higher transmissibility, contagiosity and pathogenicity compared to that of SARS-CoV-1 and MERS-CoV. SARS-CoV-2 swiftly spread from continent to continent and is persistently causing a shocking global public health concern albeit the rate of infected cases and mortality is relatively decreasing over time. In this review, we provide an update on the origin, transmissibility, etiology, epidemiology, and evolution of COVID-19. We also highlight the current diagnostics, therapies, and prognostics for SARS-CoV-2. Eventually, we report and provide our humble opinion about the preventive strategies to control the ongoing related pandemic situation at global and individual levels, considering the international public health emergency and possible future epidemics and pandemics.

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Optimising COVID-19 Vaccination Policy to Mitigate SARS-CoV-2 Transmission within Schools in Zimbabwe

Vaccines ◽

10.3390/vaccines9121481 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 9 (12) ◽

pp. 1481

Author(s):

Grant Murewanhema ◽

Solomon Mukwenha ◽

Tafadzwa Dzinamarira ◽

Zindoga Mukandavire ◽

Diego Cuadros ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Infection Prevention ◽

Control Strategies ◽

Mitigation Measures ◽

Infection Prevention And Control ◽

Vaccination Policy ◽

Prevention Strategies ◽

School Settings ◽

The Social ◽

The World ◽

And Control

The COVID-19 pandemic has disrupted the learning of millions of children across the world. Since March 2020 when the first cases of COVID-19 were reported in Zimbabwe, the country, like many others, has gone through periods of closing and re-opening of schools as part of the national COVID-19 control and mitigation measures. Schools promote the social, mental, physical, and moral development of children. With this viewpoint, the authors argue that schools should not be closed to provide a measured and efficient response to the threats posed by the COVID-19 epidemic. Rather, infection prevention and control strategies, including vaccination of learners and teachers, and surveillance in schools should be heightened. The use of multiple prevention strategies discussed in this viewpoint has shown that when outbreaks in school settings are adequately managed, the transmission usually is low. The information presented here suggests that schools should remain open due to the preponderance of evidence indicating the overriding positive impacts of this policy on the health, development, and wellbeing of children.

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Widespread activity of multiple lineages of Usutu virus, western Europe, 2016

Eurosurveillance ◽

10.2807/1560-7917.es.2017.22.4.30452 ◽

2017 ◽

Vol 22 (4) ◽

Cited By ~ 59

Author(s):

Daniel Cadar ◽

Renke Lühken ◽

Henk van der Jeugd ◽

Mutien Garigliany ◽

Ute Ziegler ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Public Health ◽

Western Europe ◽

Late Summer ◽

Control Measures ◽

Usutu Virus ◽

Dead Bird ◽

Outbreak Area ◽

Health Authorities ◽

Public Health Authorities ◽

And Control

In the summer of 2016, Belgium, France, Germany and the Netherlands reported widespread Usutu virus (USUV) activity based on live and dead bird surveillance. The causative USUV strains represented four lineages, of which two putative novel lineages were most likely recently introduced into Germany and spread to other western European countries. The spatial extent of the outbreak area corresponded with R0 values > 1. The occurrence of the outbreak, the largest USUV epizootic registered so far in Europe, allowed us to gain insight in how a recently introduced arbovirus with potential public health implications can spread and become a resident pathogen in a naïve environment. Understanding the ecological and epidemiological factors that drive the emergence or re-emergence of USUV is critical to develop and implement timely surveillance strategies for adequate preventive and control measures. Public health authorities, blood transfusion services and clinicians in countries where USUV was detected should be aware of the risk of possible USUV infection in humans, including in patients with unexplained encephalitis or other neurological impairments, especially during late summer when mosquito densities peak.

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Virology, Epidemiology, Pathogenesis, and Control of COVID-19

Viruses ◽

10.3390/v12040372 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 12 (4) ◽

pp. 372 ◽

Cited By ~ 272

Author(s):

Yuefei Jin ◽

Haiyan Yang ◽

Wangquan Ji ◽

Weidong Wu ◽

Shuaiyin Chen ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Public Health ◽

Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome ◽

World Health ◽

Global Public Health ◽

Current State ◽

Health Authorities ◽

Public Health Authorities ◽

Health Organization ◽

And Control ◽

Present Understanding

The outbreak of emerging severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) disease (COVID-19) in China has been brought to global attention and declared a pandemic by the World Health Organization (WHO) on March 11, 2020. Scientific advancements since the pandemic of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) in 2002~2003 and Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS) in 2012 have accelerated our understanding of the epidemiology and pathogenesis of SARS-CoV-2 and the development of therapeutics to treat viral infection. As no specific therapeutics and vaccines are available for disease control, the epidemic of COVID-19 is posing a great threat for global public health. To provide a comprehensive summary to public health authorities and potential readers worldwide, we detail the present understanding of COVID-19 and introduce the current state of development of measures in this review.

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