scholarly journals Compression-Aware Aggregation and Energy-Aware Routing in IoT–Fog-Enabled Forest Environment

Sensors ◽  
2021 ◽  
Vol 21 (13) ◽  
pp. 4591
Author(s):  
Srividhya Swaminathan ◽  
Suresh Sankaranarayanan ◽  
Sergei Kozlov ◽  
Joel J. P. C. Rodrigues

Forest fire monitoring is very much needed for protecting the forest from any kind of disaster or anomaly leading to the destruction of the forest. Now, with the advent of Internet of Things (IoT), a good amount of research has been done on energy consumption, coverage, and other issues. These works did not focus on forest fire management. The IoT-enabled environment is made up of low power lossy networks (LLNs). For improving the performance of routing protocol in forest fire management, energy-efficient routing protocol for low power lossy networks (E-RPL) was developed where residual power was used as an objective function towards calculating the rank of the parent node to form the destination-oriented directed acyclic graph (DODAG). The challenge in E-RPL is the scalability of the network resulting in a long end-to-end delay and less packet delivery. Additionally, the energy of sensor nodes increased with different transmission range. So, for obviating the above-mentioned drawbacks in E-RPL, compressed data aggregation and energy-based RPL routing (CAA-ERPL) is proposed. The CAA-ERPL is compared with E-RPL, and the performance is analyzed resulting in reduced packet transfer delay, less energy consumption, and increased packet delivery ratio for 10, 20, 30, 40, and 50 nodes. This has been evaluated using a Contiki Cooja simulator.

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
Archana Bhat ◽  
Geetha V

Abstract IPv6 Routing Protocol for low power and lossy networks (RPL) is a standardized and default routing protocol for low power lossy networks. However, this is basically designed for sensor networks with scalar data and not optimised for the networks with multi-modal sensors. The data rate of each multi-modal sensor varies based on various applications. RPL suffers from packet drops and re-transmissions which results in packet loss and energy consumption in case of multi-modal data transmission. Hence, the routing strategy implemented in RPL needs better scheduling strategy at parent node for forwarding packets based on various parameters. In this paper, relevant Objective Functions for multi-modal sensor data communication is proposed based on various parameters identified and a weighted ranking based scheduling strategy is proposed for multi-modal data communication called R-RPL. The goal of proposed ranking based RPL (R-RPL) is to increase the throughput and reduce the loss in terms of energy and delay based on proposed scheduling strategy for parent selection. The performance of the proposed R-RPL is evaluated in the contiki based Cooja simulator and compared with RPL protocol. The analysis shows that the R-RPL performs better compared to RPL with respect to packet delivery ratio and energy consumption.


2018 ◽  
Vol 19 (2) ◽  
pp. 80-89
Author(s):  
Rosminazuin Ab. Rahim ◽  
Abdallah Awad ◽  
Aisha Hassan Abdalla Hashim ◽  
ALIZA AINI MD RALIB

ABSTRACT: The current de-facto routing protocol over Low Power and Lossy Networks (LLN) developed by the IETF Working Group (6LOWPAN), is named as Routing Protocol for Low Power and Lossy networks (RPL). RPL in the network layer faces throughput  challenges due to the potential  large networks, number of nodes, and that  multiple  coexisting applications  will  be  running  in  the  same physical layer.  In this study, a node metric for RPL protocol based on the node’s Queue Backlogs is introduced, which leads to a better throughput performance while maintaining the delay and the ability to use with different network applications. This metric depends on the length of Packet Queue of the nodes with the consideration of other link and node metrics, like ETX or energy usage, leading to better load balancing in the network. To implement and evaluate the proposed metric compared to other RPL metrics, ContikiOS and COOJA simulator are used. Extensive simulations have been carried out in a systematic way resulting in a detailed analysis of the introduced metric namely W-metric, expected transmission count (ETX) and objective function zero (OF0) that uses hop-count as a routing metric. The analysis and comparison are based on five performance parameters, which are throughput, packet delivery ratio (PDR), latency, average queue length, and power consumption. Simulation results show that the introduced W-metric has a good performance compared to other RPL metrics with regards to performance parameters mentioned above. At the same time, the results show that its latency performance is comparable with other RPL routing metrics. In a sample simulation of 500 seconds with 25 nodes and with nodes sending packets periodically to the network root at a rate of 1 packet per 4 seconds, W-metric showed a very efficient throughput of 5.16 kbps, an increase of 8.2% compared to ETX. Results showed that it has a packet delivery ratio of 93.3%, which is higher compared to 83.3% for ETX and 74.2% for OF0. Average queue length of 0.48 packet shows improvement of 15.8% better than ETX. In addition, it exhibits an energy consumption of 5.16 mW which is 2.1% less than ETX. Overall, W-metric appears to be a promising alternative to ETX and OF0 as it selects routes that are more efficient by working on load balancing of the network and by considering the link characteristics. ABSTRAK: Protokol penghalaan de-facto semasa ke atas Rangkaian Kekuatan Rendah dan Lossy yang dibangunkan oleh Kumpulan Kerja IETF (6LOWPAN), dinamakan Protokol Penghalaan untuk Kekuatan Rendah dan Rugi (RPL). RPL dalam lapisan rangkaian menghadapi cabaran throughput berikutan jangkaan rangkaian besar, bilangan nod dan aplikasi berganda bersama akan diproses dalam lapisan fizikal yang sama. Dalam kajian ini, satu metrik nod untuk protokol RPL berdasarkan pada Backend Queue node diperkenalkan, yang membawa kepada prestasi yang lebih baik sambil mengekalkan kelewatan dan keupayaan untuk digunakan dengan aplikasi rangkaian yang berbeza. Metrik ini bergantung pada panjang Packet Queue dari node dengan pertimbangan metrik lain dan nodus lain, seperti ETX atau penggunaan tenaga, yang mengarah kepada keseimbangan beban yang lebih baik dalam rangkaian. Untuk melaksanakan dan menilai metrik yang dicadangkan berbanding metrik RPL lain, ContikiOS dan COOJA simulator telah digunakan. Simulasi meluas telah dijalankan dengan cara yang sistematik yang menghasilkan analisis terperinci mengenai metrik yang diperkenalkan iaitu W-metrik, kiraan penghantaran dijangkakan (ETX) dan fungsi objektif sifar (OF0) yang menggunakan kiraan hop sebagai metrik penghalaan. Analisis dan perbandingan adalah  berdasarkan lima parameter prestasi, iaitu throughput, nisbah penghantaran paket (PDR), latency, panjang panjang antrian, dan penggunaan kuasa. Hasil simulasi menunjukkan bahawa W-metrik yang diperkenalkan mempunyai prestasi yang lebih baik berbanding dengan metrik RPL lain berkaitan dengan parameter prestasi yang dinyatakan di atas. Pada masa yang sama, hasil menunjukkan bahawa prestasi latency W-metrik adalah setanding dengan metrik penghalaan RPL yang lain. Dalam simulasi sampel 500 saat dengan 25 nod dan dengan nod yang menghantar paket secara berkala ke akar rangkaian pada kadar 1 paket setiap 4 saat, W-metrik menunjukkan keluaran yang sangat efisien iaitu 5.16 kbps, peningkatan sebanyak 8.2% berbanding ETX. Keputusan menunjukkan bahawa ia mempunyai nisbah penghantaran paket 93.3%, yang lebih tinggi berbanding 83.3% untuk ETX dan 74.2% untuk OF0. Purata panjang giliran 0.48 packet menunjukkan peningkatan 15.8% lebih baik daripada ETX. Di samping itu, ia mempamerkan penggunaan tenaga sebanyak 5.16 mW iaitu 2.1% kurang daripada ETX. Secara keseluruhan, W-metrik nampaknya menjadi alternatif yang berpotensi menggantikan ETX dan OF0 kerana ia memilih laluan yang lebih cekap dengan bekerja pada keseimbangan beban rangkaian dan dengan mempertimbangkan ciri-ciri pautan.


2019 ◽  
Vol 8 (3) ◽  
pp. 70-93 ◽  
Author(s):  
S.Sankar ◽  
P.Srinivasan

Increasing the lifetime of low power and lossy networks (LLN) is a major challenge, as the nodes have low power, low memory, and low processing capacity. Clustering is a technique used to minimize the energy consumption of sensor nodes. This article proposes a fuzzy sets-based cluster routing protocol (FC-RPL) to extend the network lifetime in LLN. It has three processes: cluster formation, cluster head selection, and cluster head parent selection. It forms the clusters based on the Euclidean distance. It applies the fuzzy set over the metrics residual energy, number of neighbors and centrality, to select the cluster head in each cluster. The cluster head node chooses the best parent node in the DODAG for data transfer. The simulation is performed using COOJA simulator. The simulation result shows that FC-RPL extends the network lifetime by 15-25% and increases the packet delivery ratio by 2-6%.


Sensors ◽  
2020 ◽  
Vol 20 (14) ◽  
pp. 3814
Author(s):  
Frederico O. Sales ◽  
Yelco Marante ◽  
Alex B. Vieira ◽  
Edelberto Franco Silva

Sensor nodes are small, low-cost electronic devices that can self-organize into low-power networks and are susceptible to data packet loss, having computational and energy limitations. These devices expand the possibilities in many areas, like agriculture and urban spaces. In this work, we consider an IoT environment for monitoring a coffee plantation in precision agriculture. We investigate the energy consumption under low-power and lossy networks considering three different network topologies and an Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) standardized Low-power and Lossy Network (LLN) routing protocol, the Routing Protocol for LLNs (RPL). For RPL, each secondary node selects a better parent according to some Objective Functions (OFs). We conducted simulations using Contiki Cooja 3.0, where we considered the Expected Transmission Count (ETX) and hop-count metric (HOP) metrics to evaluate energy consumption for three distinct topologies: tree, circular, and grid. The simulation results show that the circular topology had the best (lowest) energy consumption, being 15% better than the grid topology and 30% against the tree topology. The results help the need to improve the evolution of RPL metrics and motivate the network management of the topology.


2019 ◽  
Vol 2019 ◽  
pp. 1-9 ◽  
Author(s):  
Hanane Lamaazi ◽  
Nabil Benamar

The ROLL working group proposed the RPL (IPv6 routing protocol for low-power and lossy networks) to respond to the requirements of low-power and lossy networks (LLNs). In this paper, we propose a new approach to assess the RPL performances based on its main components, namely, the objective function (OF) and the trickle algorithm. To this end, we compare between the RPL-EC (RPL based combined ETX and energy consumption) and the RPL-FL (RPL based on the flexible trickle algorithm). This paper compares the two implementations to assess the weight of each proposed improvement against the standard RPL. The results show that RPL performances are greatly influenced by the change of both the objective function and trickle algorithm. RPL-FL provides best values in terms of overhead, packet delivery ratio (PDR), and energy consumption, while RPL-EC acts better with the convergence time and the network lifetime compared to the standard RPL.


2021 ◽  
Vol 17 (8) ◽  
pp. 155014772110285
Author(s):  
Mohamed Hadi Habaebi ◽  
Abdullah Ahmed S Basaloom ◽  
Md Rafiqul Islam ◽  
Merrad Yacine ◽  
M Mesri ◽  
...  

Low-power lossy networks performance relies heavily on the wireless node battery status. Furthermore, Routing Protocol for Low-Power and Lossy Network routing protocol was not optimally designed with sustainable energy consumption in mind to suit these networks. Prolonging the lifespan of these networks is of utmost priority. This article introduces a solar energy harvesting module to power energy-constrained network devices and quantifies the effect of using harvested energy on prolonging their network lifetime when Routing Protocol for Low-Power and Lossy Network routing protocol is used. Simulation of the new developed module is conducted in three different scenarios using Contiki Cooja simulator sporting Zolertia Z1 motes. Furthermore, the harvested energy used was fed from a Cooja-based Simulation model of actual PV supercapacitor circuit design. All battery levels were set to 1% of their total capacity for all nodes in the network to speed up observing the energy harvesting effect. The performance evaluation results showed that the network with no-energy harvesting operated for time duration of 4:08:04 time units (i.e. hour:minute:second) with a dramatic decrease in connection between nodes in the network. However, the same network, when using the harvested energy to back up the battery operation, lasted for 6:40:01 in time units with improved connectivity, a total extended network lifetime of 2:31:97-time units. Furthermore, for the Routing Protocol for Low-Power and Lossy Network routing metrics, OF0 outperformed ETX in term of throughput, packet delivery ratio, energy consumption, and network connectivity. Results indicate that the developed harvested energy module fits perfectly for any Cooja-based simulation and mimics actual photovoltaic-based supercapacitor battery. It should also help researchers introduce and quantify accurately new energy consumption-based routing metrics for Routing Protocol for Low-Power and Lossy Network.


Sensors ◽  
2018 ◽  
Vol 18 (11) ◽  
pp. 3884 ◽  
Author(s):  
Hongxian Tian ◽  
Mary Weitnauer ◽  
Gedeon Nyengele

We study the placement of gateways in a low-power wide-area sensor network, when the gateways perform interference cancellation and when the model of the residual error of interference cancellation is proportional to the power of the packet being canceled. For the case of two sensor nodes sending packets that collide, by which we mean overlap in time, we deduce a symmetric two-crescent region wherein a gateway can decode both collided packets. For a large network of many sensors and multiple gateways, we propose two greedy algorithms to optimize the locations of the gateways. Simulation results show that the gateway placements by our algorithms achieve lower average contention, which means higher packet delivery ratio in the same conditions, than when gateways are naively placed, for several area distributions of sensors.


2020 ◽  
Vol 26 (11) ◽  
pp. 1366-1381
Author(s):  
Sathishkumar Natesan ◽  
Rajakumar Krishnan

The Routing Protocol for Low Power and Lossy Networks (RPL) is operated by gadgets comprised of many devices of embedded type with limited energy, memory as well as resources that do their process. The improvements in the life of the network and energy conservation are the key challenging features in Low Power and Lossy Networks (LLN). Obviously, the LLN has a key strategic part in routing. The Internet of Things (IoT) device is expected to make the apt choice. In LLN, the poor routing choice leads to traffic congestion, reduction in power as well as packet loss ratio. The task in the proposal analyzes Delay (D), Load (L) and Battery Discharge Index (BDI) pivoted Energy Efficient Composite Metric Routing (EECMR) protocol for LLN. The performance of the work in the proposal is evaluated by the COOJA simulator. It outperforms with respect to Network Lifetime (NL), Delay as well as Packet Delivery Ratio (PDR) contrasted to the routing metrics like Traffic Load (TL), Link Quality (LQ), Residual Energy (RE), RE-Battery Discharge Index (RE-BDI) and Hop Count (HC).


Electronics ◽  
2019 ◽  
Vol 8 (2) ◽  
pp. 186 ◽  
Author(s):  
Shimaa Abdel Hakeem ◽  
Anar Hady ◽  
HyungWon Kim

The Advanced Metering Infrastructure (AMI) is one of the Smart Grid (SG) applications that used to upgrade the current power system by proposing a two-way communication system to connect the smart meter devices at homes with the electric control company. The design and deployment of an efficient routing protocol solution for AMI systems are considered to be a critical challenge due to the constrained resources of the smart meter nodes. IPv6 Routing Protocol for Low Power and Lossy Networks (RPL) was recently standardized by the IETF and originally designed to satisfy the routing requirements of lossy and low power networks like wireless sensors (WSN). We have two kinds of AMI applications, on one hand AMI based WSN and on the other hand AMI based PLC communication. In this paper, we proposed a real and simulated implementation of RPL behavior with proper modifications to support the AMI based WSN routing requirements. We evaluate RPL performance using 140 nodes from the wireless sensor testbed (IoT-LAB) and 1000 nodes using Cooja simulator measure RPL performance within medium and high-density networks. We adopted two routing metrics for path selection: First one is HOP Count (HC) and the second is Expected Transmission Unit (ETX) to evaluate RPL performance in terms of packet delivery ratio; network latency; control traffic overhead; and power consumption. Our results illustrate that routes with ETX calculations in low and medium network densities outperform routes using HC and the performance decreases as the network becomes dense. However, Cooja implementation results provides an average reasonable performance for AMI with high-density networks; still many RPL nodes suffering from high packet loss rates, network congestion and many retransmissions due to the selection of optimal paths with highly unreliable links.


Sensors ◽  
2020 ◽  
Vol 20 (10) ◽  
pp. 2760 ◽  
Author(s):  
Karim Fathallah ◽  
Mohamed Abid ◽  
Nejib Ben Hadj-Alouane

Internet of things (IoT) for precision agriculture or Smart Farming (SF) is an emerging area of application. It consists essentially of deploying wireless sensor networks (WSNs), composed of IP-enabled sensor nodes, in a partitioned farmland area. When the surface, diversity, and complexity of the farm increases, the number of sensing nodes increases, generating heavy exchange of data and messages, and thus leading to network congestion, radio interference, and high energy consumption. In this work, we propose a novel routing algorithm extending the well known IPv6 Routing Protocol for Low power and Lossy Networks (RPL), the standard routing protocol used for IPv6 over Low-Power Wireless Personal Area Networks (6LoWPAN). It is referred to as the Partition Aware-RPL (PA-RPL) and improves the performance of the standard RPL. In contrast to RPL, the proposed technique builds a routing topology enabling efficient in-network data aggregation, hence dramatically reducing data traffic through the network. Performance analysis of a typical/realistic precision agriculture case, considering the potato pest prevention from the well-known late blight disease, shows that PA-RPL improves energy saving up to 40 % compared to standard RPL.


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