The Relationships Between Episodic Memory, Working Memory, and Executive
                        Functions: The Contribution of the Prefrontal Cortex

“Actions speak louder than words.” Although clinician’s behavioral evaluations of dementia most often include assessing episodic memory, declarative memories (e.g., naming and calculating), and executive functions (working memory, letter–word fluency), one of the most important functions of the brain is programing actions, including “how” to move and “when” to move. Patients with Alzheimer’s disease, vascular dementia, and other forms of dementia often have impairments in the systems that mediate these how-apraxic and when-intentional behaviors. Although the presence of these apraxic and action-intentional disorders may help with diagnosis and help doctors gain a better understand these patients’ disability, these functions are rarely tested and are often not well understood. The goal of this chapter is to describe the signs of the various types of apraxic disorders (limb-kinetic, ideomotor, conceptual, ideational, and dissociation) and well as action-intentional disorders (akinesia-hypokinesia, impersistence, perseveration, and defective response inhibition), how to test for these disorders, and their pathophysiology.

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Delay-Period Activity and Executive Functions of the Prefrontal Cortex

Brain Sciences ◽

10.3390/brainsci10010003 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 10 (1) ◽

pp. 3

Author(s):

Aarron Phensy ◽

Sven Kroener

Keyword(s):

Working Memory ◽

Prefrontal Cortex ◽

Executive Functions ◽

Delay Period ◽

Goal Directed Behavior

The term “working memory” (WM) describes the ability to maintain and manipulate information in the memory for the guidance of goal-directed behavior [...]

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Association of Sleep Quality on Memory-Related Executive Functions in Middle Age

Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society ◽

10.1017/s1355617717000637 ◽

2017 ◽

Vol 24 (1) ◽

pp. 67-76 ◽

Cited By ~ 5

Author(s):

Brinda K. Rana ◽

Matthew S. Panizzon ◽

Carol E. Franz ◽

Kelly M. Spoon ◽

Kristen C. Jacobson ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Working Memory ◽

Executive Function ◽

Episodic Memory ◽

Sleep Quality ◽

Executive Functions ◽

Later Life ◽

Set Shifting ◽

Interference Control ◽

Visual Spatial ◽

Increased Risk

AbstractObjectives: Sleep quality affects memory and executive function in older adults, but little is known about its effects in midlife. If it affects cognition in midlife, it may be a modifiable factor for later-life functioning. Methods: We examined the association between sleep quality and cognition in 1220 middle-aged male twins (age 51–60 years) from the Vietnam Era Twin Study of Aging. We interviewed participants with the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index and tested them for episodic memory as well as executive functions of inhibitory and interference control, updating in working memory, and set shifting. Interference control was assessed during episodic memory, inhibitory control during working memory, and non-memory conditions and set shifting during working memory and non-memory conditions. Results: After adjusting for covariates and correcting for multiple comparisons, sleep quality was positively associated with updating in working memory, set shifting in the context of working memory, and better visual-spatial (but not verbal) episodic memory, and at trend level, with interference control in the context of episodic memory. Conclusions: Sleep quality was associated with visual-spatial recall and possible resistance to proactive/retroactive interference. It was also associated with updating in working memory and with set shifting, but only when working memory demands were relatively high. Thus, effects of sleep quality on midlife cognition appear to be at the intersection of executive function and memory processes. Subtle deficits in these age-susceptible cognitive functions may indicate increased risk for decline in cognitive abilities later in life that might be reduced by improved midlife sleep quality. (JINS, 2018, 24, 67–76)

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Fatigue, quality of life, and cognitive functions in metastatic kidney cancer patients with antiangiogenic treatment.

Journal of Clinical Oncology ◽

10.1200/jco.2011.29.7_suppl.328 ◽

2011 ◽

Vol 29 (7_suppl) ◽

pp. 328-328 ◽

Cited By ~ 1

Author(s):

S. Noal ◽

M. Lange ◽

B. J. Escudier ◽

E. Sevin ◽

S. Dauchy ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Quality Of Life ◽

Working Memory ◽

Episodic Memory ◽

Executive Functions ◽

Cancer Patients ◽

Cognitive Functions ◽

Well Being ◽

Anxiety And Depression ◽

Over Time

328 Background: Fatigue is commonly reported by patients under anti-angiogenic therapies, with sometimes cognitive complains. However, few studies have explored these problems. A longitudinal multicentric prospective study is ongoing in France on fatigue, cognitive functions, quality of life (QoL), anxiety and depression among metastatic kidney cancer patients receiving anti-angiogenic therapies. Objectives: The main objective is to assess fatigue. Secondary objectives are to assess cognitive functions, QoL, anxiety, and depression. Methods: Assessments are made at baseline, at 3 and 6 months. Evaluations were made by: autoquestionnaire MFI-20 to assess fatigue, FACT-G and FKSI to assess QoL, Spielberger's and Beck's questionnaires to assess respectively anxiety and depression. Cognitive functions were assessed by a neuropsychologist with the Working Memory Index (WAIS-III), Grober and Buschke test, Rey Complexe Figure test, verbal fluency and Trail Making test, exploring respectively working memory, episodic memory and executive functions. Preliminary results are presented. Results: 35 patients were enrolled, and 20 of them had the second assessment at 3 months. Most of patients received sunitinib (51%), others received bevacizumab and interferon, or sorafenib. At baseline, 45% of patients expressed general fatigue and 50% at 3 months (p=0.04). Other domains of fatigue (physical, mental, reduced activity and motivation) did not change over time. At baseline, few patients had cognitive disorders (working memory 6%; executive functions 0%; episodic memory 11%), with no decline at 3 months. However, there was an impairment of QoL in FKSI score (p=0.01) and of FACT-G physical well-being (p=0.01). No differences were found in social, emotional or functional well-being. There was no difference on depression nor on anxiety over time. Conclusions: Fatigue significantly increased during the first 3 months of anti-angiogenic treatment, with no impact on cognitive functions but a decline of QoL. These preliminary findings need to be confirmed by further follow-up and more patients. Final results will be provided with 120 patients. No significant financial relationships to disclose.

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The "working" of working memory

Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience ◽

10.31887/dcns.2013.15.4/emiller ◽

2013 ◽

Vol 15 (4) ◽

pp. 411-418 ◽

Cited By ~ 2

Keyword(s):

Working Memory ◽

Prefrontal Cortex ◽

Executive Functions ◽

Executive Control ◽

Limited Capacity ◽

Adaptive Coding

This review examines the evidence for a neurobiological explanation of executive functions of working memory. We suggest that executive control stems from information about task rules acquired by mixed selective, adaptive coding, multifunctional neurons in the prefrontal cortex. The output of these neurons dynamically links the cortex-wide networks needed to complete the task. The linking may occur via synchronizing of neural rhythms, which may explain why we have a limited capacity for simultaneous thought.

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Differences in executive functioning between violent and non-violent offenders

Psychological Medicine ◽

10.1017/s0033291717000241 ◽

2017 ◽

Vol 47 (10) ◽

pp. 1784-1793 ◽

Cited By ~ 20

Author(s):

J. Meijers ◽

J. M. Harte ◽

G. Meynen ◽

P. Cuijpers

Keyword(s):

Working Memory ◽

Prefrontal Cortex ◽

Executive Functions ◽

Response Inhibition ◽

Partial Correlation ◽

Neuropsychological Test ◽

Violent Offenders ◽

Test Battery ◽

Set Shifting ◽

Neuropsychological Test Battery

BackgroundA growing body of neuropsychological and neurobiological research shows a relationship between functioning of the prefrontal cortex and criminal and violent behaviour. The prefrontal cortex is crucial for executive functions such as inhibition, attention, working memory, set-shifting and planning. A deficit in these functions – a prefrontal deficit – may result in antisocial, impulsive or even aggressive behaviour. While several meta-analyses show large effect sizes for the relationship between a prefrontal deficit, executive dysfunction and criminality, there are few studies investigating differences in executive functions between violent and non-violent offenders. Considering the relevance of identifying risk factors for violent offending, the current study explores whether a distinction between violent and non-violent offenders can be made using an extensive neuropsychological test battery.MethodMale remand prisoners (N = 130) in Penitentiary Institution Amsterdam Over-Amstel were administered an extensive neuropsychological test battery (Cambridge Automated Neuropsychological Test Battery; CANTAB) measuring response inhibition, planning, attention, set-shifting, working memory and impulsivity/reward sensitivity.ResultsViolent offenders performed significantly worse on the stop-signal task (partial correlation r = 0.205, p = 0.024), a task measuring response inhibition. No further differences were found between violent and non-violent offenders. Explorative analyses revealed a significant relationship between recidivism and planning (partial correlation r = −0.209, p = 0.016).ConclusionViolent offenders show worse response inhibition compared to non-violent offenders, suggesting a more pronounced prefrontal deficit in violent offenders than in non-violent offenders.

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How Prefrontal Cortex Works

Conscious Mind, Resonant Brain ◽

10.1093/oso/9780190070557.003.0014 ◽

2021 ◽

pp. 517-538

Author(s):

Stephen Grossberg

Keyword(s):

Working Memory ◽

Prefrontal Cortex ◽

Executive Functions ◽

Category Learning ◽

Spatial Working Memory ◽

Brain Regions ◽

Resonance Theory ◽

Dorsolateral Prefrontal ◽

Prefrontal Functions ◽

Controlling Actions

This chapter describes a unified theory of how the prefrontal cortex interacts with multiple brain regions to carry out the higher cognitive, emotional, and decision-making processes that define human intelligence, while also controlling actions to achieve valued goals. This predictive Adaptive Resonance Theory, or pART, model builds upon the foundation in earlier chapters. Prefrontal functions are often called executive functions. Executive functions regulate flexible and adaptive behaviors, notably in novel situations, while suppressing actions that are no longer appropriate, notably reflexive responses to current sensory inputs. Working memory is particularly involved in contextually appropriate behaviors. Prefrontal properties of desirability, availability, credit assignment, category learning, and feature-based attention are explained. These properties arise through interactions of orbitofrontal, ventrolateral prefrontal, and dorsolateral prefrontal cortices with inferotemporal cortex, perirhinal cortex, parahippocampal cortices; ventral bank of the principal sulcus, ventral prearcuate gyrus, frontal eye fields, hippocampus, amygdala, basal ganglia, hypothalamus, and visual cortical areas V1, V2, V3A, V4, MT, MST, LIP, and PPC. Model explanations include how the value of visual objects and events is computed, which objects and events cause desired consequences and which may be ignored as predictively irrelevant, and how to plan and act to realize these consequences, including how to selectively filter expected vs. unexpected events, leading to movements towards, and conscious perception of, expected events. Modeled processes include reinforcement learning and incentive motivational learning; object and spatial working memory dynamics; and category learning, including the learning of object categories, value categories, object-value categories, and sequence categories, or list chunks.

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Haloperidol-induced impairment on working memory capacity affecting long term memory performance: the binding hypothesis

10.1101/2019.12.24.888073 ◽

2019 ◽

Author(s):

Regina V. Guarnieri ◽

Marcus Vinicius Alves ◽

Ana Maria Lemos Nogueira ◽

Ivanda de Souza Silva Tudesco ◽

José Carlos F. Galduróz ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Working Memory ◽

Episodic Memory ◽

Executive Functions ◽

Medial Temporal Lobe ◽

Working Memory Capacity ◽

Memory Capacity ◽

Long Term Memory ◽

Double Blind ◽

Term Memory

AbstractThe dopaminergic system is implicated in several cognitive processes including memory, attention and executive functions. This study was a double-blind, placebo-randomized trial designed to investigate the effect of dopamine D2 receptor blockade on episodic and working memory and particularly the relationship between executive functions, working memory capacity and long-term memory (LTM). Subjects ingested a single oral dose (4 mg) of haloperidol, a dopamine D2 receptor antagonist or placebo. Multiple linear regression using generalized linear models and a generalized estimating equation were used for statistical analyses. The results demonstrated that haloperidol impaired episodic memory (free recall of words and prose recall), working memory capacity-WMC (operation span task-OSPAN) and highly demanding executive functions (random number generation - RNG). In addition, it demonstrated that despite the large impairment in the RNG task performance in the haloperidol group, it did not affect episodic memory. The OSPAN task is predictive of episodic memory impairment, suggesting that memory impairments produced by haloperidol could be due in part to the impairment of WMC. As WMC partly relies on the appropriate functioning of the medial temporal lobe, probably the haloperidol-induced impairment on episodic memory through the decrease in the performance of WMC may depend on the activation of this area of the brain. The present study is relevant because it provides data on dopaminergic modulation of memory systems; suggesting that the major cause of deficits in episodic memory may be due to hippocampal function and WMC impairments, the latter more specifically with regard to controlled search and binding.

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Towards an executive without a homunculus: computational models of the prefrontal cortex/basal ganglia system

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences ◽

10.1098/rstb.2007.2055 ◽

2007 ◽

Vol 362 (1485) ◽

pp. 1601-1613 ◽

Cited By ~ 243

Author(s):

Thomas E Hazy ◽

Michael J Frank ◽

Randall C O'Reilly

Keyword(s):

Working Memory ◽

Prefrontal Cortex ◽

Basal Ganglia ◽

Executive Functions ◽

Computational Models ◽

Critical Role ◽

Learning Mechanisms ◽

Memory Representations ◽

Empirical Tests ◽

Mechanistic Basis

The prefrontal cortex (PFC) has long been thought to serve as an ‘executive’ that controls the selection of actions and cognitive functions more generally. However, the mechanistic basis of this executive function has not been clearly specified often amounting to a homunculus. This paper reviews recent attempts to deconstruct this homunculus by elucidating the precise computational and neural mechanisms underlying the executive functions of the PFC. The overall approach builds upon existing mechanistic models of the basal ganglia (BG) and frontal systems known to play a critical role in motor control and action selection, where the BG provide a ‘Go’ versus ‘NoGo’ modulation of frontal action representations. In our model, the BG modulate working memory representations in prefrontal areas to support more abstract executive functions. We have developed a computational model of this system that is capable of developing human-like performance on working memory and executive control tasks through trial-and-error learning. This learning is based on reinforcement learning mechanisms associated with the midbrain dopaminergic system and its activation via the BG and amygdala. Finally, we briefly describe various empirical tests of this framework.

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Decision Making, Working Memory and Executive Functions in Euthymic Bipolar Patients

European Psychiatry ◽

10.1016/s0924-9338(09)70815-6 ◽

2009 ◽

Vol 24 (S1) ◽

pp. 1-1

Author(s):

M. Jaracz ◽

W. Drozdz ◽

A. Borkowska

Keyword(s):

Decision Making ◽

Working Memory ◽

Prefrontal Cortex ◽

Executive Functions ◽

Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex ◽

Iowa Gambling Task ◽

Hamilton Depression Scale ◽

Healthy Controls ◽

Dorsolateral Prefrontal ◽

Bipolar Patients

Aims:Decision making, as well as working memory and executive functions are among the most significant cognitive processes, associated with prefrontal cortex function. Decision making is associated with the orbitofrontal cortex function. Working memory and executive functions are dependent on the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. Orbitofrontal, as well as dorsolateral prefrontal cortex dysfunction in bipolar disorder has been reported. The aim of the study was to assess decision making and executive functions in euthymic bipolar patients.Methods:The study included 13 euthymic bipolar patients (6 female, 7 male), aged 43±11 years and 11 age, sex and education years matched healthy controls. Decision making was assessed with Iowa Gambling Task (IGT). Working memory and executive functions were assessed with Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST) and Trail Making Test (TMT). Depressive and/ or manic symptoms were measured with Hamilton Depression Scale (HAM-D) and Young Mania Rating Scale (YMRS).Results:Euthymic bipolar patients made more nonperseverative errors (t=2,53, p=0,01), gave less conceptual level responses (t=-2,33, p=0,03), completed less categories (t=-1,66, p=0,005) and used more cards to complete first category (t=1,49, p=0,003) in WCST. They also gained less money in IGT (t=-1,34, p=0,03).Conclusions:Bipolar patients performed significantly worse on several measures of WCST. Euthymic bipolar patients gained less money in IGT compared to healthy controls, although no significant differences in responding style in IGT were found.

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