Prevalence of Body Dysmorphic Disorder and Its Association with Other Mental Comorbidities Among a Group of College Students in Shiraz

Background: Body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) is a relatively common and often severe psychiatric disorder. This disorder is a highly distressing disorder associated with poor quality of life. In addition, it is characterized by persistent and intrusive preoccupation with perceived defects or flaws in one’s physical appearance accompanied by repetitive behaviors such as mirror checking, excessive grooming, and reassurance seeking. Objectives: The purpose of this study was to examine the prevalence of BDD symptoms and body dissatisfaction among college students. Furthermore, the current study examined students’ checking behaviors and the parts of the body that they were most concerned about. This research also sought to examine the comorbidities associated with BDD symptoms, such as eating disorders, obsessive-compulsive disorder, depression, and social anxiety. Methods: A total of 750 college students were recruited from different schools of the Shiraz University, including Social Science, Engineering, Art, Education and Psychology, and Science and Art, using the cluster sampling method. Two classes were randomly selected in each school, and those who were volunteers took part in this study. Participants completed several questionnaires, including the Body Dysmorphic Disorder questionnaire, Beck Depression inventory, Maudsley Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder scale, Social Phobia inventory, and Eating Attitude test. To analyze the data, descriptive statistics such as frequency and percentage were used. Results: The results of this study showed that about 77% of college students were dissatisfied with at least one part of their bodies. The findings also revealed that the prevalence of BDD symptoms among college students was 4.5%. Furthermore, our results indicated that college students were mostly concerned about the appearance of their skin followed by hair, nose, weight, stomach, height, teeth, breast, and other parts of the body. In terms of checking behaviors, checking in front of a mirror, reassurance seeking, seeking treatment, and comparing themselves with others were the most common behaviors. The most prevalent comorbidity associated with BDD symptoms was obsessive compulsive disorder followed by social anxiety, depression, and eating disorders. Conclusions: This study highlighted that the majority of college students were dissatisfied with their bodies. This research also showed that college students are at high risk of mental health problems.

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Body Dysmorphic Disorder Insights in an Inpatient Psychiatric Setting

Case Reports in Psychiatry ◽

10.1155/2021/6636124 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 2021 ◽

pp. 1-4

Author(s):

Zachary A. Koenig ◽

Sarah Callaham ◽

Brittany Waltz ◽

Julie Bosley ◽

Raja Mogallapu ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Anxiety Disorder ◽

Social Anxiety ◽

Obsessive Compulsive Disorder ◽

Social Anxiety Disorder ◽

Body Dysmorphic Disorder ◽

The Body ◽

Obsessive Compulsive ◽

Compulsive Disorder ◽

Psychiatric Setting ◽

Significant Impairment

Body dysmorphic disorder is a chronic disorder involving imagined or partial appearance defects that lead to significant impairment in everyday life. It is quite prevalent but remains a clinically underdiagnosed psychiatric condition especially in the inpatient psychiatric setting. Onset of body dysmorphic disorder typically begins in adolescence with subclinical symptoms. Over time, symptoms progress to patients meeting the full Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th edition (DSM-5) criteria. Severe cases of the body dysmorphic disorder are often camouflaged by concurrent diseases like major depressive disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder, substance use disorder, and social anxiety disorder. Further, compounding the complexity of body dysmorphic disorder is a treatment of patients who present with coinciding suicidal ideations. Here, we present a unique case of a 40-year-old female admitted to an inpatient psychiatric unit for treatment of ongoing depression and suicidal symptoms. Early on in her inpatient course, she had symptoms of obsessive-compulsive disorder, social anxiety disorder, and alcohol use disorder. The constellation of symptoms prompted evaluation for body dysmorphic disorder and subsequent targeted treatment. This case report highlights the complexities associated with diagnosing body dysmorphic disorder, the importance of considering it a branch point for other psychiatric conditions, and the treatment for patients who present with coinciding suicidal behavior.

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Obsessive–compulsive disorder and body dysmorphic disorder: a comparison of clinical features

European Psychiatry ◽

10.1016/j.eurpsy.2004.04.014 ◽

2004 ◽

Vol 19 (5) ◽

pp. 292-298 ◽

Cited By ~ 68

Author(s):

Franco Frare ◽

Giulio Perugi ◽

Giuseppe Ruffolo ◽

Cristina Toni

Keyword(s):

Social Phobia ◽

Obsessive Compulsive Disorder ◽

Clinical Features ◽

Body Dysmorphic Disorder ◽

Somatoform Disorder ◽

Severe Form ◽

The Body ◽

Obsessive Compulsive ◽

Compulsive Disorder ◽

Significant Difference

AbstractBody dysmorphic disorder (BDD) is currently classified as a somatoform disorder in DSM-IV, but has been long noted to have some important similarities with obsessive—compulsive disorder (OCD). In addition, BDD and OCD have been often reported to be comorbid with each other. In the present study, we compared demographic characteristics, clinical features and psychiatric comorbidity in patients with OCD, BDD or comorbid BDD—OCD (34 subjects with BDD, 79 with OCD and 24 with BDD—OCD). We also compared the pattern of body dysmorphic concerns and associated behaviors in BDD patients with or without OCD comorbidity. In our sample, BDD and OCD groups showed similar sex ratio. Both groups with BDD and BDD—OCD were significantly younger, and experienced the onset of their disorder at a significantly younger age than subjects with OCD. The two BDD groups were also less likely to be married, and more likely to be unemployed and to have achieved lower level degree, than OCD subjects even when controlling for age. The three groups were significantly different in the presence of comorbid bulimia, alcohol-related and substance-use disorders, BDD—OCD patients showing the highest rate and OCD the lowest. BDD—OCD reported more comorbid bipolar II disorder and social phobia than in the other two groups, while generalized anxiety disorder was observed more frequently in OCD patients. Patients with BDD and BDD—OCD were similar as regards the presence of repetitive BDD-related behaviors, such as mirror-checking or camouflaging. Both groups also did show a similar pattern of distribution as regards the localization of the supposed physical defects in specific areas of the body. The only significant difference concerned the localization in the face, that was more frequent in the BDD group. Our results do not contradict the proposed possible conceptualization of BDD as an OCD spectrum disorder. However, BDD does not appear to be a simple clinical variant of OCD and it seems to be also related to social phobia, mood, eating and impulse control disorders. The co-presence of BDD and OCD features appears to possibly individuate a particularly severe form of the syndrome, with a greater load of psychopathology and functional impairment and a more frequent occurrence of other comorbid mental disorders.

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Computerized Perceptual Analysis of Patients with Body Dysmorphic Disorder: A Pilot Study

CNS Spectrums ◽

10.1017/s1092852900017958 ◽

2002 ◽

Vol 7 (6) ◽

pp. 444-446 ◽

Cited By ~ 27

Author(s):

José A. Yaryura-Tobias ◽

Fugen Neziroglu ◽

Robert Chang ◽

Sean Lee ◽

Anthony Pinto ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Obsessive Compulsive Disorder ◽

Body Dysmorphic Disorder ◽

The Body ◽

Control Group ◽

Facial Features ◽

Body Perception ◽

Obsessive Compulsive ◽

Compulsive Disorder ◽

Preliminary Study ◽

Made In

ABSTRACTMany factors influence the development of body image, one of which is the perception we have of our body. Perception can refer to actual visual input or the interpretation of vision; in other words, cognitive appraisal. The goal of this preliminary study is to determine if three groups (body dysmorphic disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and a non-psychiatric control group) differed in the perception of their faces. Thirty individuals, 10 in each group, were asked to make changes to a computerized image of their face. In addition, affective and perceptual tests were administered. The groups did not differ on affective and perceptual organizational measures, although the obsessive-compulsive disorder group reported a higher level of anxiety than the body dysmorphic disorder group. Imaging software showed that facial features were modified by patients with body dysmorphic disorder and obsessive-compulsive disorder in about 50% of cases. No modifications were made in the control group. Future studies need to investigate the possible causes of these differences.

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The Relationship of Body Dysmorphic Disorder and Eating Disorders to Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder

CNS Spectrums ◽

10.1017/s1092852900021155 ◽

2007 ◽

Vol 12 (5) ◽

pp. 347-358 ◽

Cited By ~ 40

Author(s):

Katharine A. Phillips ◽

Walter H. Kaye

Keyword(s):

Eating Disorders ◽

Body Image ◽

Family History ◽

Obsessive Compulsive Disorder ◽

Body Dysmorphic Disorder ◽

Obsessive Compulsive ◽

Compulsive Disorder ◽

Body Image Disorders ◽

Relationship Of ◽

The Relationship

ABSTRACTBody dysmorphic disorder (BDD) and eating disorders are body image disorders that have long been hypothesized to be related to obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). Available data suggest that BDD and eating disorders are often comorbid with OCD. Data from a variety of domains suggest that both BDD and eating disorders have many similarities with OCD and seem related to OCD. However, these disorders also differ from OCD in some ways. Additional research is needed on the relationship of BDD and eating disorders to OCD, including studies that directly compare them to OCD in a variety of domains, including phenomenology, family history, neurobiology, and etiology.

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El carácter transdiagnóstico de las intrusiones mentales: una revisión y una propuesta basada en datos.

Revista de Psicopatología y Psicología Clínica ◽

10.5944/rppc.vol.23.num.2.2018.20738 ◽

2018 ◽

Vol 23 (2) ◽

pp. 135 ◽

Cited By ~ 2

Author(s):

Belén Pascual-Vera ◽

Amparo Belloch

Keyword(s):

Eating Disorders ◽

Mental Disorders ◽

Obsessive Compulsive Disorder ◽

Body Dysmorphic Disorder ◽

Common Symptom ◽

Obsessive Compulsive ◽

Symptom Dimensions ◽

Compulsive Disorder ◽

Functional Consequences ◽

Intrusive Cognitions

Abstract: The transdiagnostic nature of mental intrusions: A review and data-based proposal. The objective of a transdiagnostic perspective in psychopathology is to better understand the commonalities among clinically different mental disorders on the basis of a set of shared etiopathogenic dimensions and processes. Unwanted intrusive cognitions (UI) and their functional consequences had been proposed as symptom dimensions in Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD), Body Dysmorphic Disorder (BDD), Hypochondriasis (HYP) and Eating Disorders (EDs). In this article, we review the empirical data about the putative transdiagnostic nature of UI and their functional consequences in the four mentioned disorders. Firstly, the results about the universality and dimensionality of UI with contents of each disorder are reviewed. Secondly, data about UI as common symptom dimensions in OCD and EDs are presented. Finally, we offer information about our current research about the hypothetical transdiagnostic nature of UI with obsessional, dysmorphic, hypochondriac, and eating-disorders contents. Keywords: Mental intrusions; transdiagnostic; obsessive-compulsive disorder; body dysmorphic disorder; hypochondriasis; eating disorders.Resumen: El propósito de adoptar un enfoque transdiagnóstico en psicopatología es comprender las comunalidades entre trastornos mentales clínicamente diferentes sobre la base de un rango de dimensiones y procesos etiopatogénicos compartidos. Las intrusiones mentales no deseadas (IM) y sus consecuencias funcionales se han propuesto como dimensiones de síntomas en el Trastorno Obsesivo-Compulsivo (TOC), el Trastorno Dismórfico Corporal (TDC), la Hipocondría (HIP) y los Trastornos Alimentarios (TA). Este artículo resume y actualiza los datos disponibles sobre el potencial valor transdiagnóstico de las intrusiones mentales y sus consecuencias funcionales en los cuatro trastornos mencionados. Se presentan, primero, los resultados sobre la universalidad y dimensionalidad de IM con contenidos característicos de cada trastorno; segundo, los datos sobre las IM como dimensiones de síntomas comunes en el TOC y los TA; por último, se aporta información sobre una investigación propia cuyo objetivo es poner a prueba la hipótesis del carácter transdiagnóstico de IM obsesivas, dismórficas, hipocondríacas y alimentarias.

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Executive functioning in Body Dysmorphic Disorder and Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder

CNS Spectrums ◽

10.1017/s1092852921000705 ◽

2021 ◽

pp. 1-18

Author(s):

Long Long Chen ◽

Oskar Flygare ◽

John Wallert ◽

Jesper Enander ◽

Volen Z. Ivanov ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Executive Functioning ◽

Obsessive Compulsive Disorder ◽

Body Dysmorphic Disorder ◽

Obsessive Compulsive ◽

Compulsive Disorder

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Examining neurocognition in body dysmorphic disorder using the Repeatable Battery for the Assessment of Neuropsychological Status (RBANS): A comparison with obsessive-compulsive disorder

Psychiatry Research ◽

10.1016/j.psychres.2015.05.094 ◽

2015 ◽

Vol 228 (3) ◽

pp. 318-324 ◽

Cited By ~ 7

Author(s):

Wei Lin Toh ◽

David J. Castle ◽

Susan L. Rossell

Keyword(s):

Obsessive Compulsive Disorder ◽

Body Dysmorphic Disorder ◽

Obsessive Compulsive ◽

Compulsive Disorder ◽

Neuropsychological Status ◽

Repeatable Battery

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Effect of obsessive personality traits and impulsiveness on obsessive-compulsive disorder and eating disorders among hospital nurses

Promotion of Work Ability towards Productive Aging ◽

10.1201/9780203882511-58 ◽

2008 ◽

pp. 325-328

Keyword(s):

Eating Disorders ◽

Personality Traits ◽

Obsessive Compulsive Disorder ◽

Hospital Nurses ◽

Obsessive Compulsive ◽

Compulsive Disorder

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Predicting Eating Disorder and Anxiety Symptoms Using Anorexia Nervosa and Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder Polygenic Scores

10.1101/2020.07.02.20142844 ◽

2020 ◽

Author(s):

Zeynep Yilmaz ◽

Katherine Schaumberg ◽

Matt Halvorsen ◽

Erica L. Goodman ◽

Leigh C. Brosof ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Eating Disorders ◽

Sex Differences ◽

Anorexia Nervosa ◽

Eating Disorder ◽

Obsessive Compulsive Disorder ◽

Genetic Risk ◽

Anxiety Symptoms ◽

Obsessive Compulsive ◽

Compulsive Disorder ◽

Polygenic Scores

Clinical, epidemiological, and genetic findings support an overlap between eating disorders, obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), and anxiety symptoms. However, little research has examined the role of genetic factors in the expression of eating disorders and OCD/anxiety phenotypes. We examined whether the anorexia nervosa (AN), OCD, or AN/OCD transdiagnostic polygenic scores (PGS) predict eating disorders, OCD, and anxiety symptoms in a large population-based developmental cohort. Using summary statistics files from the Psychiatric Genomics Consortium Freeze 2 AN and Freeze 1 OCD GWAS, we first conducted an AN/OCD transdiagnostic GWAS meta-analysis and then calculated PGS for AN, OCD, and AN/OCD in participants from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children with available genetic and phenotype data on eating disorder, OCD, and anxiety diagnoses and symptoms (sample size 3,212-5,369 per phenotype). We observed sex differences in the PGS prediction of eating disorder, OCD, and anxiety-related phenotypes, with AN genetic risk manifesting at an earlier age and playing a more prominent role in eating disorder phenotypes in boys than in girls. Compulsive exercise was the only phenotype predicted by all three PGS (e.g., PAN(boys)=0.0141 at age 14; POCD(girls)=0.0070 at age 16; PAN/OCD(all)=0.0297 at age 14). Our results suggest that earlier detection of eating disorder, OCD, and anxiety-related symptoms could be made possible by including measurement of genetic risk for these psychiatric conditions while being mindful of sex differences.

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