Archaeometric Analysis of the Objects from the Scala Santa (Holy Stairs) in the Crypt under the Piarist Church in Cracow (Poland)

Conservators extracted and preserved reliquaries hidden in the steps of the right flight of the Holy Stairs erected in the Piarist church crypt in Cracow (Poland). Three items from among 59 reliquaries were selected for specialist analyses: a framed, transparent cross containing a particle of the True Cross, and two opaque beads; an ornamented blue one without a hole and a drilled black one were analysed using non-destructive and non-invasive methods. The methods included scanning electron microscopy coupled with energy dispersive X-ray spectrometry, Raman microspectroscopy and X-ray diffractometry. The reliquary cross was found to be made of rock crystal and framed with an alloy of gold, silver and probably copper. The beads are made of glass; the blue bead represents forest plant-ash potash–lime glass and the black one, plant-ash soda–lime glass. Cobalt, probably along with copper, was used to produce the colour of the blue bead; manganese and iron ions were used to produce that of the black bead. Lead was present in both beads as one of the minor components and also as a component of corrosion products on their surfaces and probably also as part of the filler for the ornamentation of the blue bead. Nevertheless, it cannot be ruled out that the lead compounds were introduced intentionally to emphasize the bead ornamentation. The possible place and date of manufacture of the artefacts were also discussed.

Thermal Process of Rock Crystal: Cause of Infrared Absorption Band at 3585 cm−1

Synthetic rock crystals often show a typical infrared (IR) absorption band at 3585 cm−1. However, the authors recently found this band in a natural rock crystal with blue coating. The origin of this IR band is controversial as yet. In this paper, the infrared spectra of several natural and synthetic rock crystal samples which were heated to 673 K and 1073 K were measured after these samples returned to room temperature. Comparing the infrared spectra of samples before and after heating, we found the absorption band at 3585 cm−1 was induced by the thermal process, which indicates that this band cannot be used as diagnostic evidence for synthetic rock crystal alone. In addition, the LiOH bands decreased while AlOH bands increased upon thermal processing. And the negative correlation between the LiOH bands and the 3585 cm−1 band was also distinct. The above results reveal that the thermal process destroyed the LiOH defects, leading to the formation of a new AlLi defect. And the isolated OH− defect inside dislocations generated upon thermal processing is considered to be the exact cause of the 3585 cm−1 band.

Absorption spectra and crystal chemistry of quartz implanted with cobalt ions

Background. High-dose implantation of cobalt ions into the crystal structure of natural colourless quartz was carried out. Samples of crystal plates of rock crystal from the Svetlinskoye deposit in the South Urals plane-parallel were studied. All samples were crystallographically oriented perpendicular to the symmetry axis of the third order. Cobalt implantation into quartz was carried out using an ILU-3 ion-beam accelerator along the С axis of symmetry.Aim. To determine the ranges of thermal annealing for a controlled change in the sample colour and to establish the crystal-chemical features of the changes occurring in quartz matrix due to ionbeam modification of mineral properties.Materials and methods. Implantation modes included: room temperature, residual vacuum 10–5 torr, radiation dose from 1.0×1017 to 1.5×1017 ion/cm2 at a constant ion current density of 10 μA/cm2. Post-implantation heat treatment was carried out in three stages. The control of crystallochemical changes was carried out using a highly sensitive spectrophotometer with a wide range of wavelengths.Results. It was found that the revealed absorption bands are associated with electronic transitions in cobalt ions (Со2+ and Со 3+) coordinated in the crystal matrix of implanted and heat-treated rock crystal. The formation of an independent ultradispersed spinel phase in the irradiated quartz matrix was confirmed. The newly formed phase belongs to a partially reversed cobalt spinel.Conclusions. Taking into account the quantum-optical properties of cobalt spinel (laser shutters), the method of ion-beam modification of mineral crystal structures, quartz in particular, is highly promising in terms of creating new composite materials based on natural and artificial mineral raw materials.

A seal of Solomon son of Azariah, “son of the exilarch of all Israel”

Publication of a seal of rock crystal in London (British Museum), with an inscription in Aramaic and Hebrew naming the bearer, one Solomon b. Azariah, as grandson (or perhaps son) of an exilarch. An identification of the bearer as Solomon, son of the Jewish exilarch Azariah b. Solomon (c. 975) and grandson of the exilarch Solomon b. Josiah (c. 951–3), is considered, as is the alternative possibility that the grandfather was the exilarch Solomon b. Hisdai (c. 730–58).

Laboratory investigation of coupled electrical interaction of fracturing rock with gases

In the coupled electric interaction of rock fractures and gas invasion, that is, when gases interact with newly created crack surfaces, the unpaired electrons within the rock crystal defects are thermally stimulated, released into the crack due to the temperature rise at the crack tip via plastic work, and attached to ambient gas molecules to electrify them in a negative state. Using a working hypothesis that this mechanism is the source mechanism of seismo-electromagnetic phenomena, we conducted laboratory experiments in which rocks were fractured with pressurized N2, CO2, CH4, and hot water vapour. Fractures were induced by a flat-ended indenter equipped with a flow channel, which was loaded against blocks of quartz diorite, gabbro, basalt, and granite. Fracture-induced negatively electrified gas currents at ~ 25 °C and ~ 160 °C were successfully measured for ~ ≥ 100 μs after full development of the crack. The peak electric currents were as high as 0.05–3 μA, depending on the rock species and interaction area of fractured rock and gas and to a lesser extent on the gas species and temperature. The peak current from fracturing granite, which showed higher γ-ray activity, was at least 10 times higher than that from fracturing gabbro, quartz diorite, and basalt. The results supported the validity of the present working hypothesis, that coupled interaction of fracturing rock with deep Earth gases during quasi-static rupture of rocks in the focal zone of a fault might play an important role in the generation of pre- and co-seismic electromagnetic phenomena.

Laboratory investigation of coupled electrical interaction of fracturing rock with gases

In the coupled electric interaction of rock fractures and gas invasion, that is, when gases interact with newly created cracked surfaces, the unpaired electrons within the rock crystal defects are thermally stimulated, released into the crack due to the temperature rise at the crack tip via plastic work, and attached to ambient gas molecules to electrify them in a negative state. Using a working hypothesis that this mechanism is the source mechanism of seismo-electromagnetic phenomena, we conducted laboratory experiments in which rocks were fractured with pressurized N 2 , CO 2 , CH 4 , and hot water vapour. Fractures were induced by a flat-ended indenter equipped with a flow channel, which was loaded against blocks of quartz diorite, gabbro, basalt, and granite. Fracture-induced negatively electrified gas currents at ̴ 25 °C and ̴160 °C were successfully measured for approximately a hundred microseconds or more after full development of the crack. The peak electric currents were as high as 0.05–3 mA, depending on the rock species and interaction area of fractured rock and gas and to a lesser extent on the gas species and temperature. The peak current from fracturing granite, which showed higher g-ray activity, was at least 10 times higher than that from fracturing gabbro, quartz diorite, and basalt. The results supported the validity of the present working hypothesis, that coupled interaction of fracturing rock with deep Earth gases during quasi-static rupture of rocks in the focal zone of a fault might play an important role in the generation of pre- and co-seismic electromagnetic phenomena.

Native tungsten from the Bol'shaya Pol'ya river valley and Mt Neroyka, Russia

Native tungsten (IMA2011-004), W, is officially described as a new mineral from gold placers in the Bol'shaya Pol'ya river valley, Prepolar Urals, Russia, associated with yttriaite-(Y) and from quartz veins in the Mt Neroyka rock-crystal field, Ust–Puiva, Tyumenskaya Oblast', Russia. Tungsten forms polycrystalline grains and masses, and rarely cubo-octahedra. It is silver white to steel grey in colour, with metallic lustre and grey streak. The calculated density is 19.226 g/cm3. The Vickers hardness (VHN25) is 571.45 kg/mm2. In plane polarised light, tungsten is white with a pale-yellow tint and optically isotropic. Electron microprobe analyses of Bol'shaya Pol'ya river valley material provided W 99.27, Mo 0.06, Mn 0.04, Fe 0.01, total 99.38 wt.%. The five strongest powder X-ray diffraction lines are [dobs Å(I)(hkl)]: 2.2422(100)(110), 1.5835(25)(200), 1.2929(48)(211), 1.0010(23)(310) and 0.8457(24)(321). Tungsten is cubic, Im $\bar{3}$ m, a = 3.1648(4) Å, V = 31.69(4) Å3 and Z = 2. Some additional occurrences of native tungsten and technogenic tungsten found in Nature are also described.

Laboratory Investigation of Coupled Electrical Interaction of Fracturing Rock with Gases

In the coupled electric interaction of rock fractures and gas invasion, that is, when gases interact with newly created cracked surfaces, the unpaired electrons within the rock crystal defects are thermally stimulated, released into the crack due to the temperature rise at the crack tip via plastic work, and attached to ambient gas molecules to electrify them in a negative state. Using a working hypothesis that this mechanism is the source mechanism of seismo-electromagnetic phenomena, we conducted laboratory experiments in which rocks were fractured with pressurized N2, CO2, CH4, and hot water vapour. Fractures were induced by a flat-ended indenter equipped with a flow channel, which was loaded against blocks of quartz diorite, gabbro, basalt, and granite. Fracture-induced negatively electrified gas currents at ̴25 °C and ̴160 °C were successfully measured for approximately a hundred microseconds or more after full development of the crack. The peak electric currents were as high as 0.05–3 mA, depending on the rock species and interaction area of fractured rock and gas and to a lesser extent on the gas species and temperature. The peak current from fracturing granite, which showed higher g-ray activity, was at least 10 times higher than that from fracturing gabbro, quartz diorite, and basalt. The results supported the validity of the present working hypothesis, that coupled interaction of fracturing rock with deep Earth gases during quasi-static rupture of rocks in the focal zone of a fault might play an important role in the generation of pre- and co-seismic electromagnetic phenomena.

Names of Crystal-Bearing Deposits of the Circumpolar and Southern Urals: A Comparative Study

The paper studies the names of objects of vein quartz and rock crystal deposits (placers, deposits, crystal manifestations, quarries, mines, veins, and other artificial and natural objects) located on the territory of the Circumpolar and Southern Urals (Chelyabinsk Region, Khanty-Mansi Autonomous Okrug and the Komi Republic). The timeframe of crystal mining in these regions can be set for mid-late 20th century. The study investigates systemic connections and the etymology of deposit names to identify the motivation and principles of their naming. This includes 339 toponyms of which 282 units belong to the Circumpolar Urals and 57 to the Southern Urals. A considerable part of the names is formed by metonymic transfer or copy of the names of natural places. In terms of linguistic affiliation, most toponyms in the Polar Urals have Komi-Zyryan and Mansi origin, whereas in the Southern Urals, the majority is Russian. By motivation, some of the toponyms refer to properties of the object that are most relevant for production (mineral composition, geographical position, etc). The already established system of geographical names denoting natural objects should also be accounted for the formation of a toponymic system related to crystal deposits. Characteristically, the toponymic system of the Circumpolar Urals and the Astafyevskoye field deposits in the Southern Urals (developed by a regular industrial method) show more relation to artificial systems while the Svetlinsky field, where the development took the prospecting method, demonstrates the features of a natural naming system.