Historisitas dan Dinamika Lembaga Pendidikan Islam di Indonesia

This study aims to analyze the historicity and dynamics of Islamic education institutions in Indonesia starting from the classical period, colonialism period, and pre- and post-independence periods. This research uses library research method. Data analysis using analytical descriptive analysis techniques. The results of the study show that Islamic education in Indonesia is the same age as the existence of Islam in the archipelago. Broadly speaking, the history of Islamic educational institutions in Indonesia can be divided into three periods. First, the classical period of the 13th - 16th century, namely since the entry of Islam in Indonesia, the establishment of the Islamic empire, the era of the Islamic empire until the entry of colonizers into Indonesia. Several institutions during this period were mosques, Islamic boarding schools, menasah, rangkang and dayah, surau. Second, the colonial period until the independence period (1600 - 1945). At this time it was divided into two, namely during the Dutch colonial period, there were several institutions namely Elementary Education, Latin Schools, Seminarium Theologicum, Academie der Marine, Chinese Schools. During the Japanese occupation there were several institutions, namely Basic Education (Kokumin Gakko), Advanced Education, consisting of Shoto Chu Gakko, Vocational Education, Higher Education. Third, the period of the independence era (1945-present). There are several institutions, namely pesantren, madrasah, schools, PTKI.

Beeckman, Isaac (1588–1637)

Isaac Beeckman (1588–1637) was a Dutch pioneer of early modern atomist and mechanist speculation. By profession a maker of candles and water supply systems, and later head of various Latin schools, Beeckman devoted a lifetime to studies in natural philosophy, and has received considerable scholarly attention since the rediscovery of his Journal which he kept between 1604 and 1634. Beeckman’s topics in these studies were the atomist assumption that natural phenomena result from nothing but the motion in empty space of small and hard bits of matter and the mechanist assumption that causal impact in the natural world takes place by way of direct contact of matter with matter. To this revival of ancient schools of atomist thought Beeckman added the principle of inertia, which he formulated independently of Galileo. Beeckman’s approach to the study of physics is a combination of applied mathematics and a preference for explanations that can be displayed visually. Notable among his achievements are his derivation of the law of falling bodies and a proof in acoustics that the length of a sounding string is inversely proportional to the frequency. Beeckman’s scientific connections included Pierre Gassendi and Marin Mersenne. His most remarkable relation, however, was to Descartes. Their collaboration on the study of free fall is a chapter in the history of pre-Newtonian classical mechanics and their personal relationship a topic for biographers interested in Descartes’ life and the development of his philosophy.

Martin Luther and Christian Hebraism

Christian Hebraism was a facet of Renaissance humanism. Biblical scholars, theologians, lawyers, physicians, astronomers, philosophers, and teachers in Latin schools sought to learn Hebrew in order to read the Old Testament in its original language, and to borrow and adapt ideas and literary forms from post-biblical Hebrew texts to meet Christian cultural and religious needs. While some medieval Christian scholars such as Nicholas of Lyra and Raymond Martin made extensive use of Hebrew in their works, not until the early 16th century were a significant number of Christians able to learn Hebrew and use it to study the Hebrew Bible and post-biblical Jewish texts. The desire of biblical humanists to read the Old Testament in Hebrew, the curiosity of Christian Kabbalists searching for ancient wisdom, and a slowly growing number of Jewish tutors and Christians who were able to provide Hebrew instruction all contributed to the growth of this movement. Jewish printers pioneered the techniques of mass-producing Hebrew books to feed this new market. Christian printers would use these same techniques to print grammars, dictionaries, and other books needed for instructing Christians. The growing conviction of Martin Luther and his followers that the Bible was the sole source of religious authority (sola scriptura) provided the most compelling reason for large numbers of Christians to learn Hebrew. The most active and innovative Protestant Hebraists during Luther’s lifetime were members of the “Upper Rhineland School of Biblical Exegesis,” including Martin Bucer, Wolfgang Capito, Conrad Pellican, and above all Sebastian Münster. Martin Luther and his Wittenberg colleagues were early adopters of the new Hebrew learning. He first learned Hebrew using Johannes Reuchlin’s Hebrew grammar, and put his knowledge to practical use when lecturing on the Old Testament and translating the Bible into German. His colleagues, above all Philip Melanchthon and Matthaeus Aurogallus, helped Luther translate and revise his translation from 1521 until his death in 1546. Luther characterized his approach to interpreting the Hebrew Bible as “Grammatica Theologica,” employing Hebrew philology to interpret the text, but also wherever possible making it “rhyme” with the New Testament. Toward the end of his life, Luther became increasingly concerned that Münster and other Hebraists were too quick to accept Jewish interpretations of many Old Testament passages, particularly verses that traditionally had been understood to be messianic prophecies. In On the Last Words of David (1543) Luther offered a model of how he interpreted the Old Testament, while sharply criticizing Christian Hebraists who followed Jewish interpretation too closely.

“At tale om fornödne ting, og at give nogen idée om historiens hærlighed” – Om Ludvig Holbergs lærebog verdenshistorie, Synopsis historiæ universalis (1733)

Among the lesser known works by the Danish-Norwegian enlightenment writer Ludvig Holberg (1684–1754) is a brief world history in Latin (208 pages in octavo), entitled Synopsis historiæ universalis. It was written as a textbook for pupils in the Latin schools and students at the University.Holberg structured his account in accordance with the traditional Protestant model of world history, according to which the world had been ruled by four successive world monarchies (the Assyrian, the Persian, the Greek and the Roman). The model had been promoted first and foremost by Melanchthon in the 16th century. However, the model was blatantly inadequate even in Holberg’s day because of its narrow European horizon. The article asks, as a point of departure, why Holberg nevertheless found the model suitable as structuring principle of his world history.To some extent Holberg himself provides an answer in his preface. The model, he explains, made it possible to outline the history of the world in a clearly structured way and to focus on topics that he considered important and useful for young students to reflect on. It is his aim, he declares, to impart on the young students ‘a love of history’, and he distances himself from other textbooks on world history that contain nothing but dry lists of rulers.Turning to the text itself, the article attempts to demonstrate how Holberg put these intentions into practice. In his account of the four world monarchies and (in the latter half) of the European nations, there are a number of recurrent themes: political institutions, reasons for changes of power, trade, religion, law, cultural and intellectual characteristics of a given society, etc. These are subjects typical of enlightenment historiography – including Holberg’s own works – and it was, paradoxically, in order to give proper attention to these enlightenment themes that Holberg limited his account of world history to the world encompassed by the old-fashioned model of the four monarchies.However, also in another respect Holberg’s Synopsis continued the Protestantic tradition from Melanchthon: it stresses the depravity of the papacy from late antiquity onwards. With all its enlightenment themes, often pedagogically illustrated through entertaining anecdotes, Holberg’s textbook still conveys an unwavering Lutheran view of history to its young readers.

Eloquence and Education. School Rhetoric in Eighteenth-Century Sweden

The following contribution will examine the form and content of school rhetoric in the Latin schools of early modern Sweden. After an introduction to the schools, an outline of their curricular heritage will be given, situating school rhetoric in the classical trivium. Three components of rhetorical education are identified: the theoretical teaching, the reading of exemplary texts, and the exercises, all three components displaying a striking traditionalism and stability during the eighteenth century. Furthermore, it will be shown that rhetorical education also served as a means of instilling virtue in pupils and that rhetoric was an essential component in the reproduction of a representative learned culture and in the formation of virtuous character and erudite identity.

Géographie Arabe et Géographie Latine au XIIe Siècle

The influence of Arab geography upon the Latin tradition in the Middle Ages is difficult to assess due to several factors including the former’s definition, content, and origin, as well as the tangled historiography on the question of its influence. The purpose of this paper is not to provide a comprehensive study of this complex issue but rather to define the terms of the problem and to examine some concrete cases of contact between both geographical cultures during the twelfth century. The author first considers the impact of the introduction of Greek conceptions, transmitted through the Arabic Ṣūrat al-arḍ (The Picture of the Earth), upon medieval Latin cosmography. Special attention is devoted here to the influence of Greco-Arabic knowledge on contemporary Western Latin ideas about the habitability of the remotest parts of the earth. The author then deals with the relationship between both cultures in the field of descriptive geography and cartography. Unexpectedly, these different traditions can be shown to be largely isolated from one another, and the alleged Arab origin of some documents is, in most cases, dubious. The cause of the obvious lack of interest among Western Christians in Arab descriptive geography could lie in the general conditions of the Latin schools of the time, and perhaps also in the fact that Arabic writings and maps emphasize the domination of Islam over lands formerly under Christian rule.

„Nicht calvinisch, nicht lutherisch“: Zu Humanismus, Philippismus und Kryptocalvinismus in Sachsen am Ende des 16. Jahrhunderts

ABSTRACT On the basis of case studies from Chemnitz, Zittau, Zwickau and Schneeberg, the author demonstrates the far-reaching influence of Melanchthon even on the third generation after the Reformation and the close humanistic and “philippistic” personal relations among its members. The city Latin schools prove to be the centers and disseminators of Philippism, and the scholars involved are often persecuted as Cryptocalvinists. By means of the study of personal histories, the author differentiates more sharply between Philippism and Cryptocalvinism.

ON BWV1080/8: BETWEEN THEORY AND PRACTICE

The application of rhetoric to music had special significance in the seventeenth century and in the first half of the eighteenth century. The discipline of classical Greek oratory, originally dealing with how to make and execute a speech, formed the basis for the rules of composition and performance, especially in German-speaking lands. During this period the influence of rhetorical principles on all parameters of music was commonplace; not only did a vast number of treatises on rhetoric in music emerge, but the central educational programme taught in the Latin schools and the universities included both musica and rhetorica among the seven artes liberales. That rhetoric was also a fundamental part of Bach’s music-making is shown by the following testimony from Johann Abraham Birnbaum (1702–1748), Professor of Poetics and Rhetoric at Leipzig: ‘He so perfectly understood the resemblance which the performance of a musical piece has in common with rhetorical art that he was listened to with the utmost satisfaction and pleasure when he discoursed of the similarity and agreement between them; but we also wonder at the skilful use he made of this in his works’.