Methods of Learning the Structure of the Bayesian Network

Sometimes in practice it is necessary to calculate the probability of an uncertain cause, taking into account some observed evidence. For example, we would like to know the probability of a particular disease when we observe the patient’s symptoms. Such problems are often complex with many interrelated variables. There may be many symptoms and even more potential causes. In practice, it is usually possible to obtain only the inverse conditional probability, the probability of evidence giving the cause, the probability of observing the symptoms if the patient has the disease.Intelligent systems must think about their environment. For example, a robot needs to know about the possible outcomes of its actions, and the system of medical experts needs to know what causes what consequences. Intelligent systems began to use probabilistic methods to deal with the uncertainty of the real world. Instead of building a special system of probabilistic reasoning for each new program, we would like a common framework that would allow probabilistic reasoning in any new program without restoring everything from scratch. This justifies the relevance of the developed genetic algorithm. Bayesian networks, which first appeared in the work of Judas Pearl and his colleagues in the late 1980s, offer just such an independent basis for plausible reasoning.This article presents the genetic algorithm for learning the structure of the Bayesian network that searches the space of the graph, uses mutation and crossover operators. The algorithm can be used as a quick way to learn the structure of a Bayesian network with as few constraints as possible.learn the structure of a Bayesian network with as few constraints as possible.

ABSENCE OF INTENT TO RECEIVE BUDGET FUNDS IN CASE OF ERRONEOUS RECEIPT OF A PROPERTY TAX DEDUCTION BY A SERVICEMAN AS AN INDEPENDENT BASIS FOR TERMINATION OF CRIMINAL PROSECUTION

В статье представлен детальный анализ судебной практики об осуждении военнослужащих, которые воспользовались специальными финансовыми механизмами по льготному обеспечению жилыми помещениями, и дополнительно обратились в налоговые органы за получением имущественного налогового вычета. Отмечается ошибочная трактовка судами и должностными лицами правоохранительных органов самого факта обращения и последующего принятия налогового органами решения о предоставление данного вычета в результате неосмотрительности или невнимательности сотрудников налоговых инспекций как мошенничество. При отсутствии в представленных документах и информации подделки или подлога должно служить достаточным основанием для прекращения уголовного преследования. The article presents a detailed analysis of judicial practice on the conviction of military personnel who used special financial mechanisms for preferential provision of residential premises, and additionally applied to the tax authorities for obtaining a property tax deduction. There is an erroneous interpretation by the courts and law enforcement officials of the very fact of applying and the subsequent decision by the tax authorities to grant this deduction as a result of the carelessness or inattention of tax inspection employees as fraud. If there is no forgery or forgery in the submitted documents and information, it should serve as a sufficient reason for the termination of criminal prosecution.

Ayatollah Yusuf Sanei’s Contribution to the Discourse of Women’s Rights

Ayatollah Yusef Sanei was a prominent contemporary Shia scholar whose particular methodological approach led him to issue some of the most progressive Shia fatwas on the subject of women’s rights. However, the ideas he expressed in the last decades of his life have scarcely been addressed in the English language scholarship. This article explores Sanei’s broader jurisprudential approach and how he applied it to analyzing and often challenging traditional Shia rulings related to gender issues. The article first differentiates Sanei’s approach towards jurisprudence from established methodologies, particularly in relation to his consideration of the Sunna as secondary to the Qurʾān, his rejection of the practice of using consensus as an independent basis of legal rulings, his idea that Sharia rulings may change over time, and his strong emphasis on the Qurʾān’s messages of justice and human dignity. The article illuminates how this combination led Sanei to challenge traditional ideas about men’s authority over women, a fixed socio-political role for women, and men’s superiority in the areas of divorce rights, testimony and worth in blood money (dīya), while concurring with earlier scholars on the unequal division of inheritance. Notwithstanding this latter exception, the article demonstrates that Sanei drew upon jurisprudential approaches in arguing in favor of equality between men and women in many areas.

ARBITRATION PROBLEMS IN THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION: JUDICIAL CONTROL AND ENGLISH LAW. THE VIEW OF A PRACTICAL

This article sets out the author’s vision of the role, reasons for ineffective interaction between arbitration and the judicial system in the Russian Federation. It provides relevant eloquent statistics, reveals the essence of the negative factor affecting the national market of legal services. The article argues the thoughts and recommendations for correcting the current situation. In 2016, there was an arbitration reform in the Russian Federation, with the objective of creating the arbitration centers corresponding to the world standards, not in a declarative order, as before, but in a permissive procedure. More than two thousand centers were removed from the market, most of which did not act on an independent basis, but as a tool in corporate wars or administrative subordination within holdings or groups of companies. The five new arbitration centers that have received certification have good potential for the development of arbitration in the Russian Federation. However, the number of disputes heard by these arbitration courts is extremely small. It is 0.1% of all civil cases of an economic nature, considered by state courts. The reason for this is the crusty way of thinking of judges, who still do not trust arbitration, and the rigidity of our judicial system. This article attempts to provide information on the English law products and its influence. Critical judgments are expressed about the merits of English law in disputes related to Russian assets.

Deciphering paleogeography from orogenic architecture: constructing orogens by a future closure of the Indian Ocean as thought experiment

<p>Orogens that form at convergent plate boundaries typically consist of accreted rock units that form an incomplete archive of subducted oceanic and continental lithosphere, as well as of deformed crust of the former upper plate. Reading the construction of orogenic architecture forms the key to decipher the paleogeographic distribution of oceans and continents, as well as bathymetric and topographic features that existed thereon such as igneous plateaus, seamounts, microcontinents, or magmatic arcs. Owing to its complicated opening history, the Indian Ocean comprises a mosaic of such features that is an excellent illustration of the degree of geographic complexity that must have occurred in now-subducted oceanic realms of the geologic past and provides the ideal natural laboratory to validate interpretations of present-day orogenic architecture in terms of paleogeography. Current classification schemes of orogens divide between settings associated with termination of subduction (continent-continent collision, continent-ocean collision (obduction)) and with ongoing subduction (accretionary orogenesis), alongside intraplate orogens. Perceived diagnostic features for such classifications, particularly of collisional orogenesis, hinge on dynamic interpretations linking downgoing plate paleogeography to upper plate deformation, plate motion changes, or magmatism. Here, we show, however, that Mesozoic-Cenozoic orogens that undergo collision almost all defy these proposed diagnostic features and behave like accretionary orogens instead. To reconstruct paleogeography of subducted and upper plates, we therefore propose an alternative approach to navigating through orogenic architecture: subducted plate units comprise nappes (or mélanges) with Ocean Plate Stratigraphy (OPS) and Continental Plate Stratigraphy (CPS) stripped from their now-subducted or otherwise underthrust lower crustal and mantle lithospheric underpinnings. Upper plate deformation and paleogeography respond to the competition between absolute motion of the upper plate and the subducting slab. Our navigation approach through orogenic architecture aims to avoid a priori dynamic interpretations that link downgoing plate paleogeography to deformation or magmatic responses in the upper plate, to provide an independent basis for geodynamic analysis. From our analysis we identify ‘rules of orogenesis’ that link the rules of rigid plate tectonics with the reality of plate deformation. We illustrate the use of these rules with a thought experiment, in which we predict two contrasting orogenic architectures that may result from the closure of the Indian Ocean and subsequent collision of the Somali, Malagasy and Indian Margins in a global continental drift scenario for a future supercontinent. We illustrate that our inferred rules (of thumb) generate orogenic architecture that is analogous to elements of modern orogens, unlocking the well-known modern geography as inspiration for developing testable hypotheses that aid interpreting paleogeography from orogens that formed since the birth of<br>plate tectonics.</p>

Polivach A.P., Gudev P.A. The IMEMO Sea Powers’ Rankings 2021 (2.0). – Moscow, IMEMO, 2021. – 178 p.

This book describes the system of indexes, developed by the IMEMO for evaluation of the overall maritime potential of a country. The Index of Maritime Might (IMM) is atop this system. This research includes the rankings of the top-100 countries according to their involvement in the maritime domain. The countries are compared by their ability to conduct a variety of maritime activities, either military or economical, which were calculated on the basis of statistical data as of the 1st of January 2021. This edition contains an updated version (2.0) of the indexes. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, or otherwise without the prior permission of the IMEMO. The terms country, power and nation as used in this book do not imply any judgment of the authors or the IMEMO concerning the legal status of any territory or the endorsement or acceptance of particular boundaries. The terms are used for research purposes only as maritime statistical data for a range of geographically self-contained economic areas are maintained on a separate and independent basis.

„Grożąca surowa kara” jako samodzielna podstawa tymczasowego aresztowania po zmianie art. 258 k.p.k.

The article discusses the controversy surrounding the recognition of the threat of a severe punishment of a suspect as an independent basis for the use of temporary custody. It presents positions on this problem based in particular on the wording of Art. 258 § 2 of the Code of Criminal Procedure in force in the period from 1 June 2015 to 15 April 2016 and the reasons for abandoning the amendment in question.

Skutki prawne naruszenia terminów w postępowaniu legislacyjnym

<p>The aim of the article is to present the issues related to the time limits set for individual organs of public authority (the Sejm, the Senate, the President of the Republic of Poland) for the performance of specific activities within the legislative procedure. These time limits should be calculated according to conventional rules, that is, from the beginning of the day following the day on which the act on which the legal provisions are binding begins. However, the action will also be effective if it is performed on the same day on which the said event occurred. Violation of the time limit in legislative proceedings is of fundamental importance for the act, as a normative act, within the scope of its validity. As part of the review of the constitutionality of the law, the Constitutional Tribunal also examines the correctness of the proceedings in which the law was adopted. According to the latest jurisprudence of the Constitutional Tribunal, violation of the minimum time limits required for the performance of individual activities, which have only been specified in the Rules of Procedure of the Sejm, may constitute an independent basis for declaring the entire act unconstitutional. This view differs significantly from the existing, well-established approach to this subject. The effects of violating the time limits of the legislative procedure can also be considered at the level of the rights (competences) of individual authorities within a specific proceeding. The signing of the act by the President after the expiry of the constitutional time limit should be deemed legally effective. The admissibility of issuing by the Constitutional Tribunal of scope judgements should be considered in cases of violation of the rules of correct legislation, leading to the omission or reduction of <em>vacatio legis</em>.</p>

Features of the Procedure for Bringing Minors to Administrative Responsibility

The topic discussed in the article is extremely relevant, since today systematic work is being carried out to reduce the growth of offenses and crimes of minors, as well as to increase the effectiveness of prevention and prevention of offenses committed by minors. The problems arising from juvenile delinquency are of particular concern to both society and the state, and the problem of administrative responsibility of minors has also worsened. The reason for this lies in the reform of the country’s current legislation governing the policy of determining the boundaries of responsibility of minors, also plays a certain role and the real increase in offenses committed by minors. The aim of the work is to investigate the peculiarities of bringing minors to administrative responsibility. In the process of writing the work, the formal-logical method, the method of comparative analysis, as well as the technicallegal method were used. In the process of consideration of the above-mentioned topic, the author revealed the content of bringing minors to administrative responsibility, as well as the concept and conditions of bringing minors to administrative responsibility, investigated the age of a minor, determining his administrative and legal status, and also gave a characteristic of administrative responsibility applied to juvenile offenders. It was concluded that the expediency of administrative punishment arises when the persons recognized by the relevant authority guilty of committing an offense and guilty of committing an offense. The person and age enter thus as the independent basis of application of measures of administrative punishment.

The Toronto Municipal Election: Judicial Failure to Protect the Structure of the Canadian Constitution

In Toronto (City) v Ontario (AG),1 a recent decision on the legality of legislative interference in the Toronto 2018 municipal election, the Ontario Court of Appeal makes an alarming attempt to rewrite the Canadian Constitution. The subject of this revision is the legitimate role of unwritten principles in constitutional interpretation. Robin Elliot maintains, in a leading scholarly treatment of the subject, that unwritten principles can inform constitutional interpretation in two main ways: first, they can provide an independent basis on which to overrule impugned legislation; second, they can assist in interpreting constitutional text.2 Elliot qualifies the former usage by limiting it to those principles that “can fairly be said to arise by necessary implication from provisions of the text of the Constitution … since they have the same legal status as the text.”3 The Court of Appeal, however, states that unwritten principles cannot be used as a stand-alone basis on which to overrule legislation.4 In this article, I draw on numerous Supreme Court of Canada decisions to argue that the Ontario Court of Appeal’s view of the Constitution is, with respect, fundamentally flawed. Unwritten principles inform the structure of a democratic constitution and thereby provide legislation with its claim to legitimacy. Legislation that violates foundational unwritten principles is, of necessity, subject to judicial challenge. I also argue that the Court of Appeal’s doctrinally unsustainable approach to unwritten principles led to a flawed ruling on the legality of Ontario’s interference in the 2018 Toronto election. In Reference re Senate Reform, the Supreme Court of Canada unanimously states that “constitutional interpretation must be informed by the foundational principles of the Constitution.”5 The Court of Appeal failed to provide any detailed consideration of the democratic principle, and thereby failed to recognize the constitutional imperative that protects the integrity of the electoral process. *PhD in Constitutional and Administrative Law, Queen’s University. Principal of Public Law Solutions, a research firm in Toronto.[1] 2019 ONCA 732 [Toronto v Ontario (CA 2019)].[2] “References, Structural Argumentation and the Organizing Principles of Canada’s Constitution” (2001) 80 Can Bar Rev 67 at 83-86, 141-42, and generally 86-98.[3] Ibid at 95. See also 83-84.0[4] Toronto v Ontario (CA 2019), supra note 1 at para 89.[5] 2014 SCC 32 at para 25 [Senate Reference].