Occurrence of Cryptosporidium Infection and Associated Risk Factors among HIV-Infected Patients Attending ART Clinics in the Central Region of Ghana

Cryptosporidium species are intestinal protozoan parasites that infect and cause diarrhoea in animals and humans. The current study was conducted to determine the prevalence and risk factors of Cryptosporidium infection among HIV-infected patients in the Central region of Ghana. In this cross-sectional study, four hundred eighteen documented HIV-infected participants from four health facilities that provide antiretroviral therapy (ART) services across the Central region of Ghana were selected by systematic random sampling. An enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (CoproELISATM, Cryptosporidium Savyon® Diagnostics Ltd., Ashdod, Israel) was used to detect Cryptosporidium antigens in stool samples obtained from participants. Information regarding participants’ sociodemographic characteristics and clinical symptoms as well as potential environmental and behavioral risk factors were collected using a structured questionnaire. Chi-square or Fisher’s exact tests were used to determine associations between Cryptosporidium infections and explanatory variables, while risk factors were assessed using multivariate logistic regression analysis. The overall prevalence of Cryptosporidium infection among HIV-infected participants in this study was 6.2% (95% CI: 3.90–8.54). Cryptosporidium was not significantly associated with any of the sociodemographic variables, patient clinical symptoms, and environmental factors. However, the prevalence of the parasite was significantly higher 25% (95% CI: 1.17–48.83; p = 0.013) among participants who did not always wash their hands before meals and those who did not always wash vegetables before eating them, 23.5% (95% CI: 1.05–46.01; p = 0.016). Multivariate logistic regression analysis showed that participants who used public water closet facilities were approximately 9 times more likely to become infected with the parasite than those who practised open defecation (OR: 8.83; 95% CI: 1.22–64.13; p = 0.031). In conclusion, Cryptosporidium is prevalent among HIV-infected patients in the Central region of Ghana. An important risk factor identified was the use of the public water closet toilet facility. More attention should be given to ensuring cleanliness at shared water closet facilities in addition to adequate disinfection of hands after using such facilities.

The epidemiology of soil-transmitted helminth infections in children up to 8 years of age: Findings from an Ecuadorian birth cohort

Background There are few prospective longitudinal studies of soil-transmitted helminth (STH) infections during early childhood. We studied the epidemiology of and risk factors for soil-transmitted helminth infections from birth to 8 years of age in tropical Ecuador. Methods 2,404 newborns were followed to 8 years of age with periodic stool sample collections. Stool samples were collected also from household members at the time of the child’s birth and examined by microscopy. Data on social, environmental, and demographic characteristics were collected by maternal questionnaire. Associations between potential risk factors and STH infections were estimated using generalized estimated equations applied to longitudinal binary outcomes for presence or absence of infections at collection times. Results Of 2,404 children, 1,120 (46.6%) were infected with at least one STH infection during the first 8 years of life. The risk of A. lumbricoides (16.2%) was greatest at 3 years, while risks of any STH (25.1%) and T. trichiura (16.5%) peaked at 5 years. Factors significantly associated with any STH infection in multivariable analyses included age, day-care (OR 1.34, 95% CI 1.03–1.73), maternal Afro-Ecuadorian ethnicity (non-Afro vs. Afro, OR 0.55, 95% CI 0.43–0.70) and lower educational level (secondary vs. illiterate, OR 0.31, 95% CI 0.22–0.45)), household overcrowding (OR 1.53, 95% CI 1.21–1.94)), having a latrine rather than a water closet (WC vs. latrine, OR 0.77, 95% CI 0.62–0.95)), and STH infections among household members (OR 2.03, 95% CI 1.59–2.58)). T. trichiura was more associated with poverty (high vs. low socioeconomic status, OR, 0.63, 95% CI 0.40–0.99)] and presence of infected siblings in the household (OR 3.42, 95% CI 2.24–5.22). Conclusion STH infections, principally with A. lumbricoides and T. trichiura, peaked between 3 and 5 years in this cohort of children in tropical Ecuador. STH infections among household members were an important determinant of infection risk and could be targeted for control and elimination strategies.

Assessment of Faecal Sludge Management in Nguru Town, Yobe State, Northeastern Nigeria

The aim of the study is to assess faecal sludge management (FSM) in Nguru town, Nguru Local Government area of Yobe State. Random sampling method was used in the selection of respondents in six political wards of the study area. A total of 399 questionnaires were administered to respondents in the study area with the view to identify the types and current practices of faecal sludge management in the study area. The result of the study indicates that majority of the respondents 68% used pit latrine, 24% used water closet while 8% used other type of toilet facilities. However, on the excreta defecation, the finding indicated that 84% had access to household toilets, 8.0% used public toilets, and 6.0% practiced open defecation with the remaining 2% practicing defecation in polythene bags after which they discard it into the bush or on a refuse dump. The study further revealed that majority (54%) of the respondents disposed their toilet sludge by land fill, 31% participants were using any available land for faecal sludge final disposal while 10 % and 5% disposed their toilet by nearby river and composting respectively. The finding indicated that, the faecal sludge management of the study area is unsatisfactory and may pose a risk of environmental and adverse human health. The current practices of faecal sludge management were found below international standard requirement set by WHO. It is therefore recommend that Government should come up with proper orientation and environmental laws should be put in place for the general public and also to provide necessary facilities and arrange for better methods of faecal sludge management. Keywords: FSM, Nguru town, Toilet facilities and open defecation

Categorising green building features in developing countries: The case of South Africa

Purpose This study aims to explore the concept of green building by determining a suitable system for categorising green building features (GBFs) that are considered significant in enhancing the value of a building in a developing economy with particular reference to South Africa. The motivation for categorising the features is based on the perception that the upsurge in adopting green building and sustainability has ushered in a new and formidable set of challenges to practising professionals in terms of recognising the most significant value-adding GBFs. Design/methodology/approach A quantitative approach was adopted, involving randomly selected construction professionals within the Western Cape Province of South Africa. The data were analysed using descriptive and inferential statistical analysis tools. Findings Based on the mean ranking analysis, the top three most important features, amongst others, were kitchen and water-closet (WC) water efficient fittings, megawatt photovoltaic solar plant and water metering for monitoring and leak detection. Additionally, an exploratory factor analysis revealed that the underlying grouped features were “recycled materials and high-performance building energy design”, “water-saving and solar technologies”, “biometric system and acoustical feature”, “sensor control and natural daylight design”, “daylight harnessing feature”, “high-performance hydrologic strategy and noise control feature” and “special utility feature and water efficiency technologies”. Research limitations/implications This study was conducted and limited only to the Western Cape Province of South Africa. However, the findings have practical significance to the generality of green building projects and may serve as a useful guide for other developing countries. Originality/value This study broadens the viewpoint of construction professionals to recognise and prioritise the most important GBFs in South Africa that increase the value of a building. To create a system for assessing the sustainability of a building, the seven components and the features associated with them may be useful.

Characteristics of rural domestic wastewater with source separation

Rural domestic wastewater (RDW), one of the non-point pollution sources, has become a significant object related to sanitation improvement and water pollution control in Taihu Lake Basin, China. Current research on RDW characteristics and management with source separation is limited. In this study, a source-separated investigation into the characteristics of RDW was conducted, and the management suggestions were proposed. The results showed that the average RDW production coefficient was 94.1 ± 31.6 (range: 71.8–143.0) liters per capita (person) per day. Household-level wastewater generation peaked two or three times daily, and the synchronous fluctuation could cause hydraulic loading shocks to treatment facilities. The population equivalents of chemical oxygen demand, ammonium nitrogen (NH4+–N), total nitrogen (TN), and total phosphorus (TP) in RDW were 78.7, 3.7, 4.12, and 0.8 g/(cap·d), respectively. Blackwater from water closet source accounted for 30.4% of the total wastewater amount, contributing 93.0%, 81.7%, and 67.3% to loads of NH4+-N, TN, and TP, respectively. Graywater from the other sources with low nutrient-related pollutant concentrations and loads, accounting for 69.6% of the total wastewater amount, was a considerable alternative water resource. The quantitative and qualitative characteristics indicated that GW and BW had the potential of being reused in relation to water and nutrients, respectively.

Distribution Pattern of Soil-transmitted Helminths and Common Practices Enhancing Transmission in Owena, Southwestern Nigeria

Geohelminth infection are a major public health problem worldwide particularly in Africa. This study was carried out to investigate the distribution pattern of soil-transmitted helminths and common practices enhancing transmission in Owena, Southwestern Nigeria. Two hundred (200) soil samples were obtained from five different locations in Owena community and examined for the presence and absence of geohelminths eggs and larvae using Modified Cobbs decanting and sieving method. Different activities and practices that could enhance parasite transmission in the environment were investigated through a well-designed questionnaire. The result revealed that out of the 200 soil samples, 61% were contaminated with at least one parasite. The parasites encountered include Ascaris lumbricoides, Trichiuris trichiura, hookworms and Strongyloides stercoralis. Hookworm have the highest contamination prevalence of 55.8%. Furthermore, the result showed that 167 (38.5%) of the respondents does not have appropriate means of waste disposal and as such 29 (14.5%) dispose their waste in the river and 165 (82.5%) dispose their waste materials in any available site such as bushes and backyards. In the same vein only 115 (57.5%) have toilet facilities while 82 (42.5%) does not have toilet facilities. With regard to the type of toilet used, 30 (15%) uses water closet toilet, 84 (42%) make use of pit toilet while 86 (43%) get rid of their faeces through any available mean including bushes and backyards. this result is an evidence that geohelminth is still prevalent and pose a significant health challenge to the residents of Owena community. Thus appropriate management strategy such as health education should be encouraged.

Understanding the Barriers and Opportunities for Effective Management of Shared Sanitation in Low-Income Settlements—The Case of Kumasi, Ghana

Improved sanitation for all is a daunting task for low-income countries, and shared toilets often provide an alternative to private household sanitation for most urban residents. This study sought to provide better understanding of the existing barriers and opportunities for improved management of shared sanitation. The study used focus group discussions and in-depth interviews with 70 users (landlords and tenants) of shared sanitation in Kumasi, Ghana to assess barriers and opportunities of “high-quality” shared sanitation. The commonly used toilet facilities were dry toilets—Kumasi Ventilated Improved Pit latrine and Ventilated Improved Pit latrines; and flush systems—water closet and pour flush connected to septic tanks. Between 2 and 21 households, or 4 and 84 people, shared one facility. Participants’ description of “high-quality” (Ideal) shared sanitation was centred on cleanliness, user behaviour, smell, and user crowding. They also identified challenges of shared sanitation as overcrowded users, poor user behaviours, conflicts among users, and high cost associated with frequent desludging. However, opportunities for improvement included users’ preference for shared toilets due to enjoyed benefits, existing facility management practices, and mutual understanding among users (tenants and landlords). Interventions and policy guidelines to influence behaviour change of shared sanitation users are proposed and are intended to be delivered by local government and users.

Coda

This chapter considers many histories that intersect with and inform that of the eighteenth-century closet. It includes the history of the Turkish hammam, the water closet, the camera obscura, and the museum. It analyzes the multiple strands that make it possible to assemble a lexicon of intimacy that encompasses the evolving connotations and denotations of the word closet along with those of many related terms, such as cabinet, green room, peeping Tom, privy, secretary, seraglio, and vis-à-vis. The chapter also reveals that the histories of the bathing closet and the water closet, though both concerned with cleanliness and plumbing, unfurl across very different timelines and may evoke very different social milieus and cultural associations. It describes the closet prayer's extensive hold over the intimate imagination that is revealed through its depiction as a form of erotic favoritism, as a practice for the privy, and as a source of spiritual insights to be immortalized. It also outlines the recurring international perspectives that situate the rise of British closet culture within larger political dynamics.

Penerapan data antropometri siswa dalam perancangan tempat berwhudu di SDIT ATH Thaariq – 2 Dumai

ABSTRACTSDIT ATH-THAARIQ 2 Muhammadiyah Dumai is one of the integrated Islamic elementary schools in the city of Dumai, has a vision of realizing a generation of Qur'ani, Islamic civilized, intelligent, achievers, towards a global-minded human being. SDIT ATH-THAARIQ 2 Muhammadiyah Dumai accustoms their students to perform prayers in congregation and duha prayers every day, practice Islamic etiquette such as eating and drinking courtesy, courtesy at the toilet, courtesy to old parents, procedures for taking wudhu correctly and memorization of Juz Amma. To take whudu still use the water closet (WC) that available in each class with a size of 2m x 1m and the school still provides 1 faucet so that when student take wudhu they have to queue. The initial observations of the position of the faucets in the WC were not appropriate with the anthropometry of the students of SDIT ATH-THAARIQ 2 Muhammadiyah Dumai. So we need a place of Wudhu that can meet the needs when taking wudhu by making a place of wudhu with the position of the tap in appropriate with the average anthropometric data of students of SDIT ATH-THAARIQ 2 Muhammadiyah Dumai. The results of wudhu place design with the application of anthropomteri data are the height of the faucet from the floor is 79.25 cm, the width of the distance between the faucets is 50 cm and the body distance to the faucet is 30.80 cm Keywords: Anthropometry, SDIT ATH-THAARIQ 2 Muhammadiyah Dumai, Wudhu ABSTRAKSDIT ATH-THAARIQ 2 Muhammadiyah Dumai merupakan salah satu sekolah dasar islam terpadu yang ada di Kota Dumai, memiliki visi mewujudkan generasi Qur’ani, beradab islami, cerdas, berprestasi, menuju insan berwawasan global. SDIT ATH-THAARIQ 2 Muhammadiyah Dumai membiasakan siswa-siswinya untuk melaksanakan sholat berjama’ah dan sholat dhuha setiap hari, mengamalkan adab – adab islami seperti adab makan dan minum, adab ke WC, adab kepada oarang tua, tata cara mengambil wudhu yang benar serta hafalan – hafalan Juz Amma. Untuk pengambilan whudu masih menggunakan water closet (WC) yang tersedia di setiap kelas dengan ukuran 2m x 1m dan sekolah masih menyediakan 1 kran sehingga pada saat pengambilan air wudhu siswa - siswi harus mengantri. Hasil pengamatan awal posisi kran yang ada di WC belum sesuai dengan antropometri siswa-siswi SDIT ATH-THAARIQ 2 Muhammadiyah Dumai. Maka diperlukan tempat wudhu yang bisa memenuhi kebutuhan saat pengambilan air wudhu tersebut dengan membuat tempat wudhu yang posisi krannya sesuai rata-rata data antropometri siswa - siswi SDIT ATH-THAARIQ 2 Muhammadiyah Dumai. Hasil perancangan tempat berwudhu dengan penerapan data antropomteri adalah tinggi kran dari lantai adalah 79,25 cm, lebar jarak antara kran adalah 50 cm dan jarak tubuh ke kran adalah 30,80 cm. Kata kunci: Antropometri, SDIT ATH-THAARIQ 2 Muhammadiyah Dumai, Wudhu.