Verkkokeskustelijoiden käsitykset hän- ja se-pronominien norminvastaisesta käytöstä

Artikkeli tarkastelee ei-kielitieteilijöiden käymää keskustelua eläimeen viittaavasta hän-pronominista sekä ihmiseen viittaavasta se-pronominista internetin keskustelupalstoilla. Normitetussa suomen kielessä eläimiin viittaavan kolmaspersoonaisen pronominin sääntö on tiukempi kuin monissa muissa kielissä. Esimerkiksi ruotsissa ja englannissa persoonapronominin käyttö eläimistä sallitaan ja sitä jopa suositellaan tietyissä tilanteissa, mutta suomessa vain demonstratiivipronomini on yleiskielen mukainen. Hän-pronominia kuitenkin käytetään viittaamassa erityisesti lemmikkieläimiin ainakin puhutussa kielessä, lastenkirjoissa ja leikittelevissä, vapaamuotoisissa teksteissäkin. Se-pronomini taas on puheessa tavallinen ihmisviitteisenä. Keskusteluissa esiin tuotavia käsityksiä tutkitaan kansanlingvistisestä näkökulmasta yhdistämällä sisällönanalyysiä ja diskurssianalyysiä. Tulokset täydentävät aiemmin kyselyaineistojen perusteella tehtyä tarkastelua ja vertaavat kahta pronomininormia koskevia käsityksiä toisiinsa. Havainto, että ei-kielitieteilijät keskittyvät normiin ja vaativat yksiselitteisiä sääntöjä, ei yllätä. Normidiskurssia selvästi yleisempää on kuitenkin vedota arvostukseen ja väitellä siitä, ilmaiseeko pronominivalinta puhujan suhtautumista viittauskohteeseen. Keskustelijat ovat aidosti erimielisiä, ja kummankin normin rikkomista myös puolustetaan ja ymmärretään. Verkkokeskustelijat kytkevät kaksi pronomininormia yhteen kahdella erilaisella tavalla: se-pronominin käyttöä ihmisistä käytetään sekä puolustamassa että vastustamassa hän-pronominin käyttöä eläimistä. Alueellinen vaihtelu nousee verkkokeskusteluissa esiin harvemmin kuin aiemmin tarkastelluissa kyselyvastauksissa. Normidiskurssin vastapainoksi asettuvat käsitykset tilanteen mukaan vaihtelevista käyttötavoista sekä kielenkäyttäjän oikeudesta käyttää kieltä haluamallaan tavalla. Lisäksi verkkokeskustelijat esittävät, että hän-pronominin käyttö viittaamassa eläimiin olisi lisääntynyt viime vuosina muiden kielten vaikutuksesta tai siksi, että ihmisten suhtautuminen lemmikkieläimiin on muuttunut. Online discussions about rules for third-person pronoun use in Finnish The article examines online discussions regarding the use of the personal pronoun hän ‘he, she’ for animals and the demonstrative pronoun se ‘it’ for people. In Standard Finnish, the norm regulating the third-person pronouns used for animal referents is stricter than in many other languages. In English and Swedish, for instance, a personal pronoun is allowed and even recommended in some contexts. Even though it is against the norms of Standard Finnish, the personal pronoun hän ‘he, she’ may refer to pets in colloquial speech, children’s books and playful style. The demonstrative pronoun se ‘it’, in turn, refers to all kinds of referents, including people, in informal spoken language. The approach in this article is folk linguistic and the methods used are those of discourse analysis and content analysis. It is not surprising that participants in online discussions focus on the standard norm and insist upon simple, unambiguous rules. However, a more common discourse in the data is to argue as to whether the choice of pronoun is linked to a demonstration of respect for animals. The perspectives regarding the two norms governing pronoun use intertwine in several interesting ways, and breaking these norms can be justified by situational variation and the right to use language freely. Many participants in online discussions think that the use of hän for animals may have increased due to the influence of other languages and changing attitudes towards animals.

Demonstratiivpronoomenid ja -adverbid määratlejatena. Miks me oleme siin ilmas, selles olukorras?

Kokkuvõte. Artiklis analüüsime eesti keele demonstratiivide referentsiaalseid omadusi sellistes konstruktsioonides, kus demonstratiivid kuuluvad definiitse määratlejana nimisõnafraasi koosseisu. Otsime vastust küsimusele, mille poolest erinevad demonstratiivadverb (nt siin, seal) ning demonstratiivpronoomen (see, too), kui need esinevad määratlejana koos kohakäändes nimisõnafraasiga (vrd siin koolis ja selles koolis). Oleme püstitanud hüpoteesi, et demonstratiivadverbid seostuvad ruumitähendust väljendavate substantiividega, demonstratiivpronoomenid esinevad aga nende substantiividega, mille referent on mitteruumiline. Uurimuse andmestik pärineb 2017. aasta eesti keele ühendkorpusest, kust oleme võtnud 100 lauset iga demonstratiivi kohta igas kohakäändes, seega kokku 2400 lauset. Materjali analüüsime kvantitatiivselt (tingimuslike otsustuspuude ja juhumetsadega) ning kvalitatiivselt. Uurimuse tulemused kinnitavad, et substantiivi semantilised omadused, täpsemalt substantiivi semantiline klass ning konkreetsus, on seotud määratleja valikuga. Kohatähenduses substantiividega esineb määratlejana sagedamini demonstratiivadverb, mittekoha tähenduses substantiivide määratlejana kasutatakse aga demonstratiivpronoomenit. Mittekohta tähistavate substantiivide korral mõjutab määratleja valikut omakorda sõna konkreetsus. Seega on võimalik demonstratiivseid määratlejaid eesti keeles kasutada referenti looval viisil. Abstract. Helen Hint, Piia Taremaa, Maria Reile, Renate Pajusalu: Demonstrative pronouns and demonstrative adverbs as determiners in Estonian: why are we in “here world” in “this situation”? We investigate the variation of definite determiner constructions in Estonian: noun phrases with a demonstrative pronoun (see ‘this’, too ‘that’) or demonstrative adverb (siin ‘here’, seal ‘there’) as a determiner are contrasted. The question is what differentiates the use of a demonstrative pronoun and a demonstrative adverb if used in a determiner position in an NP. The data from Estonian National Corpus 2017 were tagged for semantic class of a noun, noun concreteness, and verb type. We collected 100 clauses for each sub-construction (six spatial cases crossed with four determiner forms), 2400 clauses in total. For statistical analysis, we used conditional random forests and inference trees. We show that nouns expressing spatial meaning prefer demonstrative adverbs as determiners, while non-spatial nouns combine with demonstrative pronouns. Spatiality-wise polysemous nouns exhibit more varied preferences. Adverbial determiners are more probably used with concrete nouns, and abstract nouns co-occur with pronominals. Overall, the frequency of demonstrative adverbs as NP attributes confirms that demonstrative adverbs are productive determiners in Estonian.

ORENBURG, YAITSKY GORODOK AND ALATYR IN PUSHKIN’S RECORD “KRYLOV’S (POET’S) READINGS”

Готовясь к поездке по местам пугачевского восстания, А. С. Пушкин встретился с И. А. Крыловым и записал его воспоминания о детских годах, проведенных в Оренбургском крае. Однако употребленное Пушкиным указательное местоимение в словосочетании «жертвой оной игры» затруднило понимание фразы, а следовательно, и смысла последнего микросюжета в этой записи. В статье восстанавливается смысл, вложенный Пушкиным в этот речевой оборот: «оной» у него означало не «этой», но «той, такой же, подобной». При таком прочтении становится ясно, что излагаемые далее события с участием Д. Мертваго происходили не в Яицком городке, а в Алатыре, о чем он и поведал в мемуарах «Пугачевщина» (1857), изданных уже не при жизни Крылова и Пушкина. Также в статье делается предположение о том, что сведения об алатырской игре могли быть включены в запись «Показания Крылова (поэта)» не со слов Крылова, но добавлены туда самим Пушкиным, который также, весьма вероятно, был знаком с Д. Б. Мертваго и мог слышать эту историю непосредственно от него. Preparing for a trip to the places of the Pugachev uprising, A.S. Pushkin metI. A. Krylov and wrote down the memories of his childhood years spent in the Orenburg region. However, the demonstrative pronoun used by Pushkin in the phrase “victim of this game” made it difficult to understand the phrase, and, consequently, the meaning of the last microplot in this fragment. The article reconstructs the meaning put by Pushkin into this turn of the phrase: “this” means not “this”, but “that, the same, similar”. With this interpretation, it becomes clear that the events described below with the participation ofD. Mertvago took place not in Yaitsky gorodok, but in Alatyr, which he told about in the memoirs “Pugachevshchina” (1857), published not during the lifetime of neither Krylov nor Pushkin. The author also makes the assumption that the information about the Alatyr game could have been included in the fragment “Testimony of Krylov (the poet)” not from the words of Krylov, but were added there by Pushkin himself, who was also very likely familiar with D.B. Mertvago and could have heard this story directly from him.

The influence of prominence cues in 7- to 10-year-olds’ pronoun resolution: Disentangling order of mention, grammatical role, and semantic role

In two visual world experiments we disentangled the influence of order of mention (first vs. second mention), grammatical role (subject vs object), and semantic role (proto-agent vs proto-patient) on 7- to 10-year-olds’ real-time interpretation of German pronouns. Children listened to SVO or OVS sentences containing active accusative verbs (küssen “to kiss”) in Experiment 1 (N = 72), or dative object-experiencer verbs (gefallen “to like”) in Experiment 2 (N = 64). This was followed by the personal pronoun er or the demonstrative pronoun der. Interpretive preferences for er were most robust when high prominence cues (first mention, subject, proto-agent) were aligned onto the same entity; and the same applied to der for low prominence cues (second mention, object, proto-patient). These preferences were reduced in conditions where cues were misaligned, and there was evidence that each cue independently influenced performance. Crucially, individual variation in age predicted adult-like weighting preferences for semantic cues (Schumacher, Roberts & Järvikivi, 2017).

Multisemioottisen tekstin jäsentyminen

Artikkelissa tarkastellaan verbaalisen ja visuaalisen kielen yhteistyötä audiovisuaalisessa multisemioottisessa tekstissä. Tarkastelun kohteena on 40 haastattelu-uutista, jotka on lähetetty Yleisradion puoli yhdeksän uutisissa. Haastattelu-uutisesta analysoidaan tarkemmin uutistoimittajan puhumaa selostusta ja sen oheista kuvaa – jaksoa, joka edeltää haastateltavan puhetta kuvatilassa. Aihetta lähestytään teoreettisesti ja metodologisesti systeemis-funktionaalisen (SF) kieliteorian ja siihen läheisesti liittyvän visuaalisen suunnittelun kieliopin keinoin. Artikkelissa keskitytään SF­teorian metafunktioista tekstuaalisuuteen ja vastaavasti visuaalisen suunnittelun kieliopin sommitteluun. Analyysi osoittaa, että televisiouutisten verbaalinen ja visuaalinen kieli toimivat saumattomassa yhteistyössä siten, että molemmilla on omat tehtävänsä. Verbaalinen kieli välittää pääosin informaation, mutta kohtauksen kuvalla on merkityksenannossa keskeinen asema. Informaationkulussa verbaalisen informaatioyksikön teema–reema-rakenteen vaihtelu lankeaa yksiin visuaalisen informaatioyksikön tutun ja uuden kanssa, kun kuvassa havainnollistetaan viestiä käyttämällä sommittelun rajausta. Jos selostuksen teema–reema-rakenteen aikana kuvassa esiintyy kohde, jolla on visuaalista huomioarvoa, kuvan elementit korostavat sitä toistamalla mainitun teeman aihetta, mutta reeman sanomaa ei erikseen visualisoida. Multisemioottisessa, audio­visuaalisessa tekstissä voidaan verbaalisen kielen leksikaalisen koheesion ohella puhua visuaalisesta koheesiosta. Kuvan sommittelussa käytetään toistoa fokusoimalla samoja kuvaelementtejä ja rajataan eri osia kokonaisuuksista. Yhdeksi haastattelu­uutisen erityispiirteeksi osoittautuu demonstratiivipronomini tämä, erityisesti paikallis­sijaiset muodot tässä ja tästä. Demonstratiivin korrelaatti voi audiovisuaalisen tekstin sisällä sijaita paitsi verbaalisessa selostuksessa myös suoraan kuvan elementissä tai toiminnossa, jota korostetaan rajauksella. Artikkeli osoittaa, että television haastattelu-uutinen on konventionaalinen ja professionaalinen teksti, joka on rakenteeltaan vakiintunut. Sen välttämättömiä rakenne­osia ovat uutistenlukijan ingressistä ja toimittajan puheen sanan ja liikkuvan kuvan yhteistyössä muodostuvat jaksot, jotka päättyvät studion ulkopuolisessa tilassa toteutettuun haastatteluun. Jaksot rakentuvat pienistä yksityiskohdista, joilla jokaisella on merkityksensä ja funktionsa uutiskokonaisuudessa. Forming the structure of a multisemiotic text: analysis of televised news interviews This article deals with the fusion of verbal and visual language in audiovisual and multisemiotic texts. The analysis focuses on forty news interviews broadcast during the eight-thirty evening news on Yleisradio (the Finnish Broadcasting Company). The reporter’s speech and its enclosed frame, i.e. the sequence which precedes the interviewer’s speech, are here analysed in close detail. The subject is approached theoretically and methodically using the principles of of systemic-functional grammar (SF) and of the closely related theory of visual design grammar. This article focuses on the textuality of SF theory’s metafunctions and on the design of visual design grammar respectively. The analysis shows that both the verbal and visual language of a news broadcast function in collaboration, both having their own unique roles. The verbal language is mainly responsible for transmitting information, whereas the associated visual scenes also play a major part in providing meaning. Within the flow of information, the interplay of the theme and rheme is also manifested on screen, whereby new information presented verbally is subsequently represented visually as new elements that can be highlighted and topicalised through the judicious use of framing and cropping. If a visually noteworthy element appears during the theme-and-rheme structure of the narrative, the elements of the enclosed frame indicate the subject of a given theme by repeating it. The rheme message is not separately visualised. When discussing the audiovisual text, we can talk not only about the lexical cohesion of verbal language but also about visual cohesion. In composing enclosed frames, for instance, repetition can be used in focusing the same visual elements or cropping out certain parts of a wider picture. A specific characteristic of the verbal language in news interviews seems to be the use the demonstrative pronoun tämä (‘this’) and especially the use of its local cases tässä (‘here’) and tästä (‘from here/about this’). In an audiovisual text, the antecedent of the demonstrative pronoun can be located not only in the narrative but also directly within the elements of the enclosed frame or in functions highlighted in the enclosed frame by framing. The article shows that television news interviews form a conventional and professional text with an established structure. Their essential parts are the periods that consist of the newsreader’s introduction, the sequences consisting of the reporter’s words, and the moving images that end up in an interview outside the studio.

SUBORDINATE AND MATRIX SYNONYMIC INFINITIVE UTTERANCES IN FRENCH FICTION OF THE XX – XXI CENTURIES

In this article subordinate and matrix infinitive utterances are defined as one-basis (with one transformational terminal chain) and two-basis (with two or more transformational terminal chains) synonymic transforms of the virtual (linguistic) primary propositionnal structure with the concessive, temporal, causal, final, hypothetical semantic meanings. They are actualized in the form of preferential options-compressed, extended or quantitatively equacomponential discourse innovations with the explicit predicate and the implicit actant coreferent or non-coreferent with the actant of the matrix utterance according to the communicative intention or the idiostyle of the author. Different semantic-structural types of subordinate infinitive utterances, the matrix infinitive utterances containing the verb savoir, the specific extended polypredicative constructions (with the extender-demonstrative pronoun) and the quantitatively equacomponential structures with the initial infinitive are distinguished. The inverse reconstruction (discourse → language) of the virtual transformational processes is carried out in order to identify all the members of the virtual synonymic chains. It is proved that the procedure of the inverse reconstruction and the identification of the primary proposition are impossible in case of the insufficience of the expression. The “alternativeˮ linguistic experiment allows for justifying the co(n)textual (linguistic and situational) pertinence of the analyzed synonymic preferential options and determining the author’s idiostylistic peculiarities.

LINGUAL MARKERS OF PRECEDENT STRATEGY IN EVERYDAY ENGLISH POLITICAL DISCOURSE

The article is devoted to the study of lingual markers of the precedent strategy with imperative intention in everyday English political discourse. This kind of discourse is represented by the speech of non- professional politicians, in which common people shape their conceptions about politics, activities of the political institutions and their leaders. In order to modify the activities of politicians in the interests of society, the citizens appeal to precedent phenomena. By doing this the voters encourage the politicians either to follow positive precedence or to avoid negative one. Analysis of the empirical material has revealed that the lingual markers used for the implementation of the precedent strategy belong to the lexical and syntactic levels. The former level is represented by productive use of nouns with the semantics of model behavior “example, style, pattern, mode, way, path, repeat”, adjectives with the semantics of similarity “same, such, similar, equivalent” and conjunctions with the same semantics “like, as”. Frequently the adequate precedent historical situations are introduced into the sentence by the word-combinations “for example, for instance”. The electorate actively use in their speech verbal combinations with the semantics of instructiveness “to take / draw / teach / learn a lesson from, to learn from, to follow the plan / route”. Such verbs as “observe, look at” help to draw the addressee’s attention to the necessary precedence. The demonstrative pronoun “that” serves to establish contact between the realities of today and the existing historical precedents. The syntactic level of the implementation of precedent strategy is characterized by active use of complex sentences with attributive clause, object clauses and circumstantial clause of time. The latter syntactic construction is correlated to the category of “us –them”, where the component “them” is given positive evaluation, and the component “us” receives negative evaluation, what ruins the classical concept of this opposition.

LANGUAGE TOOLS TO INCLUDE OTHERS INTO PERSONAL SPHERE OF THE SPEAKER IN TURKISH

Каждый язык обладает системой средств, отражающих взаимные позиции коммуникантов и характеризующих социальную дистанцию между собеседниками. Цель исследования, проведенного на материале примеров из разговорного турецкого языка (ТЯ), зафиксированных автором, состоит в определении набора языковых средств включения собеседника в личную сферу говорящего в ТЯ. Теоретически значимой задачей является включение соответствующих данных в лингво-типологические исследования. В качестве обращений в ТЯ используются личные имена, апеллятивы и (псевдо)термины родства. В рамках системы языковых средств эгоцентрического структурирования окружающего социального пространства основным средством включения присутствующего в сферу говорящего в ТЯ является использование в обращениях посессивного показателя 1 л. ед. ч. (мой). Обращения к младшим состоят из их личного имени или (псевдо)термина родства и посессивного показателя 1 л. ед. ч. Использование посессивного показателя 1 л. ед. ч. при обращения к старшим возможно при условии использования уменьшительного показателя. Обращение к старшим по возрасту с использованием только личного имени невозможно. Местоимение ты используется в отношении широкого круга лиц и не может считаться средством включения собеседника в личную сферу говорящего. Инструментом сознательного исключения присутствующих из личной сферы говорящего является использование в отношении них указательного местоимения 3 л. şu. Несмотря на специфику набора языковых средств включения окружающих в личную сферу говорящего в ТЯ, общая ситуация полностью соответствует ее определению, предложенному Ю. Д. Апресяном. Each language has a culturally specific system of tools that reflect the mutual positions of communicants, including tools that characterize the social distance between interlocutors. This investigation was conducted on the example material from conversational Turkish Language recorded by the author. Its purpose is to determine a set of linguistic tools that allows the inclusion of the interlocutor in the speaker’s personal sphere in Turkish. Theoretically, it is important to include relevant data in linguistic and typological studies. Personal names, appellatives, and (pseudo) kinship terms are used as addresses in Turkish. Within the system of language tools of egocentric structuring of the surrounding social space, the main tool of including of a person into the sphere of the speaker is the possessive suffix of 1 Pers. Sing. (“my”) in various types of addresses. For younger recipients the suffix “my” is used with their personal name or (pseudo) kinship term. The inclusion of senior recipients in the personal sphere of the speaker using the possessive suffix “my” is possible with the preliminary use of the diminutive suffix. Addressing senior recipients through the usage of their personal names is not possible. The pronoun sen “you” (Sing.) cannot be considered as a tool of including the interlocutor in the personal sphere of the speaker, since it is used in relation to a wide range of people. The tool for deliberately excluding those present from the speaker’s personal sphere is the use of the demonstrative pronoun of 3 Pers. şu. Despite the specific set of language tools of incorporating other persons into a personal field of speaker in Turkish, the overall situation is in line with the definition proposed by Yu. Apresyan.

Cyclic changes in Hungarian relative clauses

Relative operators stem from demonstratives or from wh-operators and may subsequently be reanalyzed as complementizers. In Hungarian, unlike English, the reanalysis of wh-operators into relative operators preceded the reanalysis of the matrix demonstrative pronoun, and the demonstrative was reanalyzed into [Spec,CP] via cliticization onto the wh-based relative pronoun, rendering morphologically complex relative pronouns. This change was enabled by environments in which a morphologically unmarked (singular, nominative) matrix demonstrative was immediately followed by a relative operator. The demonstrative was subsequently renewed in the main clause. We argue that this had two important prerequisites. First, the original wh-based relative operator did not lose its lexical features and was not grammaticalized into a functional head. Second, the matrix demonstrative lost its original definiteness feature, [+def], and became unspecified for this feature. Ultimately, it is this feature change that brought about the emergence of a new morphosyntactic paradigm, in line with the Borer-Chomsky Conjecture.

Context and Discourse Conventions

This chapter further develops the idea that discourse conventions govern the dynamics of prominence, and determine the state of the conversational record, fixing the interpretation of an occurrence of a prominence-sensitive expression, such as a demonstrative pronoun. The chapter identifies a range of linguistic mechanisms—discourse conventions—that affect prominence as a matter of their grammatical contribution reflected in the logical form of a discourse. Specifically, it is argued that mechanisms of discourse coherence—the inferential connections between individual utterances that signal how they are organized into a coherent discourse—affect the contextual prominence ranking of candidate interpretations for demonstrative pronouns as a matter of their grammatically encoded contribution. The meaning of a demonstrative is then determined linguistically through and through. While demonstratives are prominence-sensitive, they are not sensitive to non-linguistic features of utterance situation.