Variability and Virulence Analysis of Aspergillus niger Isolates Causing Collar Rot of Groundnut

Background: Collar rot of groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.) caused by Aspergillus niger is a significant constraint in groundnut cultivation and responsible for huge economic losses in India including Rajasthan. Methods: By surveying of eight major groundnut growing districts of Rajasthan, India, one representative Aspergillus niger isolate from each district was established (ANBK-01= Bikaner, ANCH-02= Churu, ANDA-03= Dausa, ANJP-04= Jaipur, ANJL-05= Jalore, ANJD-06= Jodhpur, ANNG-07= Nagaur and ANSK-08= Sikar) for studying variability in the pathogen as well as to know the response of groundnut varieties to the highly virulent isolate. The colony and spore characteristics were observed for cultural and morphological variability. For resistance response to the disease, ten varieties (M-13, RG-633-9, RG-382, Girnar-2, RG-604, RG-578, Gajraj 10, RG-510, RG-632-1 and RG-644) were evaluated in the field for two consecutive years against a highly virulent Aspergillus niger (ANJP-04) isolate. Result: Our investigations cleared that all the isolates were showed cultural and morphological variability such as shape, colour and size of colony and size of conidia, conidiophores and columella. Isolate (ANJP-04) collected from Khejroli village of Chomu tehsil in Jaipur district showed maximum mycelial growth, conidia diameter, length and diameter of conidiophores and length and diameter of columella, early sporulation and found most virulent as it produced higher disease incidence (54.43%). Ten released varieties of groundnut in the field conditions, revealed that none of the variety was found completely free from the disease whereas RG-644, M-13 and RG-510 were found resistant while RG-604, Girnar-2, Gajraj-10 and RG-632-1 were found moderately resistant and rest were found susceptible to highly susceptible to the disease. Conclusively, it can be finalized that famers may cultivate these resistant varieties in areas where collar rot is a severe constraint. The conclusion of this study can also be utilized to screen varieties/genotypes of groundnut against highly virulent isolate for sustainability of breeding material to the disease effectively.

Socio-Economic Contributions and Marketing of Garcinia Kola (Bitter Kola) in Ijebuode, Ogun State, Nigeria

This study examined the socio-economic contribution and marketing of Garcinia kola to human livelihoods in Ijebu-ode Ogun State. Simple random sampling was used to select 100 respondents from the study area and questionnaires were distributed to the selected respondents. Descriptive statistics were used to analyze the socio-economic characteristics of the respondents while Gini coefficient and cost and return analysis were used to analyze the market structure and profitability. The result showed that 95% of the respondents were females, 35-45 age category have the highest percentage (48%). The finding revealed that the Islamic religion pre-dominate the study area. Acquisition of occupational skill by majority (64%) was through apprenticeship i.e. learning. Price fluctuation was the major challenge (78%) faced by the respondents. The valuation and utilization of the bark of Garcinia kola for treatment of malaria has highest (84%) percentage while the seed was used by majority (60%) to cure cough. The study showed the average profitability of all the markets, New market has the highest gross profit (N8,500) while Oke-aje market has the lowest gross profit (N3,293.75). Computation of Gini-coefficient (G) helped to reveal the structure of the market. The result, G= 0.4708 indicates the oligopolistic nature of the market, which means the study areas were characterized by few sellers. Majority (90%) of the respondents revealed that trading in bitter kola is profitable than trading in other non-timber forest products. Based on this findings, it was recommended that bitter kola marketers in the study areas should endeavor to form a co-operative and also, banking industry in Ogun State Nigeria should be made to consider in giving out loans to the bitter kola traders to enable them to go on mass trading of the products since price fluctuation was the most severe constraint to bitter kola marketing in the study area.

Effect of PEG Induced Drought Stress on Seed Germination and Seedling Growth of Greengram Genotypes

Greengram (Vigna radiata L. Wilczek) is the third most important pulse crop and drought is the most severe constraint to greengram growth and productivity. The present study was conducted to identify the drought tolerant greengram genotypes. Four greengram varieties used for standarization of drought stress using Polyethyleneglycol (PEG) 6000. The effect of water stress caused by different concentration of PEG 6000 are control (0 MPa), -0.4MPa, -0.5 MPa, -0.6MPa and -0.7 MPa. Increasing PEG concentration decrease the germination percentage, root length, shoot length, fresh weigh and dry weight of seedlings. At -0.5 MPa shows 50% seedling mortality , So control and -0.5 MPa level of drought stress was used for screening the greengram genotypes. Under PEG induced drought situations, parameters such as germination percentage, growth indices and proline content were recorded in all greengram genotypes. Compared to control, PEG induced drought stress (-0.5MPa) decrease all these parameters studied, where as drought has increased the proline content in all greengram genotypes screened. Among the greengram genotypes VGG17019 and VGG17004 posses higher germination percentage, GSI and proline content indicates high level of tolerance to drought stress.

Constraints of Extisting Innovations in Technology Dissemination (ITD) Methods in India- A Critical Analysis

Extension in many countries has come to cover a variety of activities in both the public and private sectors, yet the transfer of information continues to be the ultimate focus of all extension activities. The present study was conducted in Kannur district of Kerala state, to identify the constraints of existing ITD methods implemented by different agricultural institutions in Kannur and find out the suggestions from farmers for improvement. Thirty farmers each from four selected Grama Panchayats (Ezhome, Kankol- Alapadamba, Kadannapalli- Panapuzha and Mayyil) of Kannur were identified using simple random sampling. A well-structured interview schedule was used for collecting data from the respondents. The data were tabulated and inferences were drawn after appropriate statistical analysis. The results shows that lack of awareness about the latest ICT methods for technology dissemination’ is having highest mean score (72.17) and it is considered as the most severe constraint by the farmers followed by ‘trainings are not effective to meet farmer’s needs’ (71.5) and ‘Less training programs for farmers and extension personnel (69.77).

Jet ignition in small two-stroke engines: an experimental survey on benefits and challenges

Increasingly stringent policy on carbon dioxide have proved to be a severe constraint on the design of light two-stroke (2S) engines. The enhancement of efficiency is claimed to be the main target to make these devices compliant with future regulations. Low-Pressure Direct Injection (LPDI) was found to be effective in the reduction of fuel short circuit, thus improving efficiency and mitigating pollution. Innovative combustion technologies are required to exploit further the fuel potential. Jet Ignition (JI), i.e., ignition provided by means of hot turbulent jets, was found to improve the fuel ignition process, leading to a faster and more uniform combustion. Several benefits are shown in over forty years of Literature, from the higher performance to wider flammability limits. However, few studies have been performed on small 2S engines, for which only full-load data are available. This paper aims at experimentally evaluating benefits and challenges of adopting the JI technology on light 2S LPDI engines at both full- and low- load operation. Different configurations of passive prechambers have been investigated in terms of indicated cycle, brake efficiency and cycle-to-cycle variation. A sensitivity analysis on the spark timing was performed to fine-tune the combustion process. Results show the adequacy of the JI for use in devices operating close to full torque, like garden tools; however, issues related to the excessive amount of residual gas or to the rapid pressure decrease during the expansion phase were highlighted. Different solutions for solving these challenges are proposed.

Climate-smart agricultural practice usage and profitability of dry season leafy vegetable farmers in some selected LGAs in Kwara State

This paper sought to assess the CSAP used among dry season leafy vegetable farmers, estimate the profitability, and identifythe constraints faced in the usage of CSAP. Data were collected from 120 randomly selected farmers. Descriptive statistics,net profit analysis, and Likert-type scale were used for data analyses. Crop rotation was the most prevalent practice while,terracing was the least used. The farmers spent almost half of their gross receipts from leafy vegetable production asoperating expenses while yet still guaranteed to get 83 kobo on every one naira invested. The absence of conservative watermanagement practices was the most severe constraint among the farmers. The study concluded that all the respondents usedat least one CSAP and leafy vegetable production was profitable. It was recommended that the usage of CSAP could beincreased among the farmers by motivating farmer trainers to train more groups and support the farmers with improvedseeds and other necessary resources. Keywords: climate change, constraints, leafy vegetables, mitigation strategies, return to capital invested

Characteristics of shea butter processing in Niger State, Nigeria

The study examined the characteristics of Shea Butter processing and factors associated with the output in Niger states, Nigeria. Two stage sampling procedure was used to select 315 respondents. Interview schedule was used in data collection. Data collected were analysed with percentages, Chisquare, the Pearson Product Moment Coefficient (PPMC) and simple regression model at α 0.05. The result revealed that the majority (80.6%) of the respondents used semi-mechanised method in processing Shea butter. The average unit price of Shea butter was ₦476.07K per Kilogramme, while the average income was ₦439,650.37K per annum. Processors had low level of accessibility to modern processing technologies (66.2%) and more than half (64.8%) of the processors were producing at low level. Lack of credit facilities and high cost of processing equipment were identified as severe constraint to Shea butter processing. There were significant relationship between level of education (χ²=11.18, p≤0.05), level of engagement (χ²=8.71, p≤0.05), income (r=0.819, p≤0.05) and accessibility to modern Shea butter processing technologies (r=0.164, p≤0.05) with level of Shea butter processing output. The major determinants of Shea butter processing output were income, household size, unit price and accessibility to modern processing technologies. Financial institutions should provide soft loans to Shea butter processors to acquire inputs and equipment. Similarly, government agencies should provide Shea butter processing equipment to the processors to improve access to the technologies that could lead to increase Shea butter production in Niger state. Keywords: Shea butter processing, determinants of processing output, technology accessibility and processors

Effects of the psaltry cassava out-grower scheme in enhancing smallholder productivity in Oke-Ogun Area of Oyo State, Nigeria

This study assessed the effects of Psaltry cassava Out-grower scheme in enhancing smallholder productivity in Oke-Ogun area of Oyo State. Pre- and post-intervention combined with treatment and control group designs were used. Data were collected from 232 Out-grower and 49 non- Out-grower farmers using interview schedules. Data were analysed using percentages, ttest and regression analysis. Assured markets (90.5%) and training on postharvest handling of crops (69.9%) were the most common supports received from Psaltry. Long bureaucracy involved in documentation (x̄ =2.23) was the most severe constraint faced in the scheme. Total cassava harvested and productivity among Out-growers increased from 30,950.89±31,133.48kg to 106,116.88±96,926.01kg and 5,649.2±3835.3kg/Acre to 9,143.6±8799.1 kg/Acre before and after participating in Psaltry scheme, respectively. A significant difference existed between the productivity of Out-growers and non- Out-growers (t=7.256; p≤0.05). Membership of group (β=0.319) and length of involvement in the Psaltry scheme (β=0.157) positively and significantly influenced Out-growers’ cassava productivity. The Psaltry Outgrower scheme had stimulated beneficiary’s smallholder farmers towards higher productivity. A scale-up of the Psaltry model has prospects for transforming smallholder farmers to commercial producers. Keywords: Out-grower scheme, cassava farmers, market linkage, smallholderfarmers, psaltry scheme

Screening of wheat (Ttiticum aestivum L.) cultivars for terminal heat stress tolerance by using biochemical pointer

Among abiotic factors, high temperature is severe constraint limiting crop production. Wheat is a major cereal and staple crop of Pakistan. An experiment was conducted (winter season 2018-19) to expose the effect of warmness induced biochemical alteration on morphological points of Pakistani wheat cultivars. Randomized complete block design (RCBD) with split plot arrangement having three replications was used to experiment. Heat stress treatments H0 = No heat imposition, H1 = heat imposition from (Feekes Scale = 10 to 10.5) booting to complete heading were randomized in main plots while varieties in subplots. Galaxy-2013, Gold-2016, Ghazi-2016, Aas-2011, Johar-2016, Pakistan-2013, F-8, Sahar-2006, Jauher-2016 and AARI-2011. Under heat stress, a smaller reduction in chlorophyll fillings and improvement in antioxidant activities were showed by Ghazi-2019, Aas-2011 and Jhor-2016. Among all other cultivars, higher chlorophyll deprivation and depletion in antioxidant activities under heat stress over control was observed. Reasonably lesser grain filling rate, higher duration, number of grains per spike and yield was detected for cultivars Ghazi-2019, Aas-2011, Jhor-2016 and F-8 under heat stress over control. Convincingly, based on biochemical response and morphological indicators genotypes Ghazi-2019, Aas-2011 and Jhor-2016 manifested heat tolerance. Genotype Fareed-2006 and F-8 manifested medium tolerance. Whereas, genotype AARI-2011, Galaxy-2013, Gold- 2016, Jhor-2016, Pakistain-2013, Sher-2006 and Ujala depicted susceptibility to terminal heat stress.

Screening of wheat (Ttiticum aestivum L.) cultivars for terminal heat stress tolerance by using biochemical pointer

Among abiotic factors, high temperature is severe constraint limiting crop production. Wheat is a major cereal and staple crop of Pakistan. An experiment was conducted (winter season 2018-19) to expose the effect of warmness induced biochemical alteration on morphological points of Pakistani wheat cultivars. Randomized complete block design (RCBD) with split plot arrangement having three replications was used to experiment. Heat stress treatments H0 = No heat imposition, H1 = heat imposition from (Feekes Scale = 10 to 10.5) booting to complete heading were randomized in main plots while varieties in subplots. Galaxy-2013, Gold-2016, Ghazi-2016, Aas-2011, Johar-2016, Pakistan-2013, F-8, Sahar-2006, Jauher-2016 and AARI-2011. Under heat stress, a smaller reduction in chlorophyll fillings and improvement in antioxidant activities were showed by Ghazi-2019, Aas-2011 and Jhor-2016. Among all other cultivars, higher chlorophyll deprivation and depletion in antioxidant activities under heat stress over control was observed. Reasonably lesser grain filling rate, higher duration, number of grains per spike and yield was detected for cultivars Ghazi-2019, Aas-2011, Jhor-2016 and F-8 under heat stress over control. Convincingly, based on biochemical response and morphological indicators genotypes Ghazi-2019, Aas-2011 and Jhor-2016 manifested heat tolerance. Genotype Fareed-2006 and F-8 manifested medium tolerance. Whereas, genotype AARI-2011, Galaxy-2013, Gold- 2016, Jhor-2016, Pakistain-2013, Sher-2006 and Ujala depicted susceptibility to terminal heat stress.