Classical deterrence theory revisited: An empirical analysis of Police Force Areas in England and Wales

The severity, certainty and celerity (swiftness) of punishment are theorised to influence offending through deterrence. Yet celerity is rarely included in empirical studies of criminal activity and the three deterrence factors have never been analysed in one empirical model. We address this gap with an analysis using unique panel data of recorded theft, burglary and violence against the person for 41 Police Force Areas in England and Wales using variables that capture these three theorised factors of deterrence. We find that the three factors affect crime in different ways. Increased detection by the police (certainty) is associated with reduced theft and burglary but not violence. We find that variation in the celerity of sanction has a significant impact on theft offences but not on burglary or violence offences. Increased average prison sentences (severity) reduce burglary only. We account for these results in terms of data challenges and the likely different motivations underlying violent and acquisitive crime.

Efficiency of Pre-Trial Proceedings – Research, Evaluation, Criteria and Influence of Legislative Changes

An international scientific conference organized by the Academy of the Police Force in Bratislava entitled: “THE EFFICIENCY OF PRE-TRIAL PROCEEDINGS – RESEARCH, EVALUATION, CRITERIA AND INFLUENCE OF LEGISLATIVE CHANGES” was held on 04th and 5th November 2021 at the Academy of the Police Force in Bratislava, within the project APVV-19-0102 “The efficiency of pre-trial proceedings – research, evaluation, criteria and influence of legislative changes” under the auspices of Dr. h. c. prof. JUDr. Lucia Kurilovská, PhD., the Rector of the Academy of the Police Force in Bratislava and prof. JUDr. Jozef Čentéš, PhD., Head of the Department of Criminal Law, Criminology and Criminalistics, Comenius University in Bratislava, Faculty of Law.

Exploring the police use of force continuum with a partial proportional odds model

PurposeThe present study examines a range of police force on the continuum (firearms, TASER/chemical spray and physical force) to see whether they are associated with individual (subject and officer), situational and/or neighborhood factors.Design/methodology/approachA partial proportional odds model is used to analyze police use of force data from 2003 to 2016 in Dallas. Independent variables are allowed for varying effects across the different cumulative dichotomizations of the dependent variable (firearms vs TASER/chemical spray and physical force and firearms and TASER/chemical spray vs physical force).FindingsMost officer demographic and situational factors are consistently significant across the cumulative dichotomizations of police force. In addition, suspect race/ethnicity (Hispanic) and violent crime rates play significant roles when officers make decisions to use firearms, as opposed to TASER/chemical spray and physical force. Overall, situational variables (subject gun possession and contact types) play greater roles than other variables in affecting police use of force.Originality/valueDespite the large body of police use of force research, little to no research has used the partial proportional odds model to examine the ordinal nature of police force from physical to intermediate to deadly force. The current findings can provide important implications for policy and research.

German police recruits’ perception of skill transfer from training to the field

In order optimally to prepare police officers for the demands in the field, police training has to be designed representatively. However, for the German context, there is a scarcity of research investigating to what extent training meets the demands of the field. To fill this gap, the current study examined if police training in Germany meets the field demands of police officers based on the perspective of police recruits. Thirteen recruits from a German police force were interviewed in a semi-structured way to identify possible matches and discrepancies between training and the field. The qualitative were was analysed using content analysis. The results revealed that recruits valued police training very positively because they were able to apply learned skills and tactics in the field. However, results also indicated that: (a) key informational variables present in the field were missing in training, namely chaotic, highly dynamic situations; and (b) police officers need to be adaptable and flexible in the field to cope with the demands. Finally, the results suggested that police training focuses narrowly on dealing with extreme threats, which differs from the experiences recruits had in the field and may have drawbacks because continuously perceiving social situations as threatening and dangerous is a risk factor for aggressive behaviour. Taken together, the current study provides further insights into the wants and needs of recruits in police training.

Reflections on Preliminary Fieldwork: The Militarisation of Public Space in Srinagar and its Impact on Rhythms of Everyday Life

This project focuses on the conflict in Indian administered Jammu and Kashmir (J&K). This conflict is characterised by the militarised occupation of the region and resistance for self- determination by indigenous populations. In 2019, there were over 500,000 military and police force stationed in the state of J&K and over the years the forces have become a permanent fixture of the day-to-day life of people in the region. The use of civilian infrastructure by the military apparatus to control the rhythms of everyday life has evolved to its current form as an integral aspect of the conflict itself. This paper is focused on two interrelated aspects i.e., the impact of militarisation, magnified by Covid-19 pandemic on the fieldwork itself and its relationship to the larger impact of militarisation on everyday life in Srinagar. The methodology is inspired by rhythmanalysis which focuses on space of interaction. The rhythmanalysis is in two parts, it explores the rhythms as viewed and investigated by the researcher as opposed to the rhythms of everyday life for research participants. The aim here is to contextualise the questions of ethics and positionality as a researcher, conducting fieldwork during covid 19, in a militarised conflict region. Key Words: Military; Public Space; Rhythmanalysis; Resistance, Critical Architecture

Police Force in the Formation of the Modern State: Development and Transformation of the Police Force in Iran

Public security was unable to achieve any systematic order until the start of urbanization. With the formation of modern cities, the need to ensure the security of people and their living spaces were met primarily by city administrators and then by regular internal security organizations. This article discusses Iran’s security system as it existed in the pre-modern period and the internal security strategies that transformed in line with the modern understanding of the state. The concept of internal security in Iran has gone through the following four main phases: (1) military methods that had been applied by the senior administrators of the states that had ruled the region before the Qajar Dynasty, (2) the first professionalization that saw the Nazmiyya Organization established in the Qajar Dynasty through efforts to separate policing from military service, (3) the re-militarization of internal security services and focus on intelligence activities during the Pahlavi Dynasty that had been established after the Rıza Han coup, and (4) the ideological appearance of the police organization accompanied by the theo-political orientation that emerged after the 1979 Revolution. This text discusses these four phases in detail.

‘I am tired of being afraid’: Emotions and protest participation in Belarus

Belarus witnessed a staggering level of mass mobilization in the aftermath of the 2020 fraudulent election and disproportionate use of police force against peaceful protesters. Using the case of anti-government protests in Belarus, this article argues that a confluence of moral and reflex emotions explains an incredibly high level of protest participation in a hard autocracy. Specifically, indignation over the magnitude of electoral malpractices and the intensity of police violence, in congruence with the loss of fear, provides a moral battery for generating and sustaining mass mobilization. It is further argued that a sense of unity within the protest movement mitigates fear of repression and facilitates sustained engagement in protests. Drawing on media reports and protesters’ narratives, the study traces how citizens overcame their fear of state reprisal and took to the street. The article contributes to contentious politics literature by elucidating the role of emotions in shaping mass mobilization.

Policing for Peace

In communities plagued by conflict along ethnic, racial, and religious lines, how does the representation of previously-marginalized groups in the police affect crime and security? Drawing on new evidence from policing in Iraq and Israel, Policing for Peace shows that an inclusive police force provides better services and reduces conflict, but not in the ways we might assume. Including members of marginalized groups in the police improves civilians' expectations of how the police and government will treat them, both now and in the future. These expectations are enhanced when officers are organized into mixed rather than homogeneous patrols. Iraqis indicate feeling most secure when policed by mixed officers, even more secure than they feel when policed by members of their own group. In Israel, increases in police officer diversity are associated with lower crime victimization for both Arab and Jewish citizens. In many cases, inclusive policing benefits all citizens, not just those from marginalized groups.