Mask Use Depends on the Individual, Situation, and Location—Even Without COVID-19 Transmission: An Observational Study in Shanghai

COVID-19 has drastically altered people’s mask-wearing behaviors around the world. What is unknown is how long these mask behaviors will last post-COVID-19? To investigate how individual, situational, and locational factors influence mask use in the absence of community spread of COVID-19, we conducted an observational study in public areas in the megacity of Shanghai, China. Researchers coded people’s mask use in various suburban and urban districts and outdoor and indoor locations with and without mask requirements. Firstly, even without any local transmissions in more than 40days, 62% of the sample (N=1,282) still wore masks in public places. The data showed that people in more urban areas wore masks more often and that people wore masks in places where it was mandated. Women also wore masks more than men, and older people complied more with mask enforcement policies. We found that more densely populated districts and areas with more inflow of non-locals also predicted more mask use. We argue that the pandemic has long-lasting effects on human behavior like mask usage and reflects individuals’ continual conformity to new social norms.

Frequency of enforcement is more important than the severity of punishment in reducing violation behaviors

External enforcement policies aimed to reduce violations differ on two key components: the probability of inspection and the severity of the punishment. Different lines of research offer different insights regarding the relative importance of each component. In four studies, students and Prolific crowdsourcing participants (Ntotal = 816) repeatedly faced temptations to commit violations under two enforcement policies. Controlling for expected value, we found that a policy combining a high probability of inspection with a low severity of fines (HILS) was more effective than an economically equivalent policy that combined a low probability of inspection with a high severity of fines (LIHS). The advantage of prioritizing inspection frequency over punishment severity (HILS over LIHS) was greater for participants who, in the absence of enforcement, started out with a higher violation rate. Consistent with studies of decisions from experience, frequent enforcement with small fines was more effective than rare severe fines even when we announced the severity of the fine in advance to boost deterrence. In addition, in line with the phenomenon of underweighting of rare events, the effect was stronger when the probability of inspection was rarer (as in most real-life inspection probabilities) and was eliminated under moderate inspection probabilities. We thus recommend that policymakers looking to effectively reduce recurring violations among noncriminal populations should consider increasing inspection rates rather than punishment severity.

US law enforcement policy predictors of race-specific police fatalities during 2015–16

Mounting evidence suggests that law enforcement organizational factors contribute to higher incidence and racial disparities in police killings. To determine whether agency policies contribute to race-specific civilian fatalities, this exploratory study compared fatality rates among agencies with and without selected policies expected to reduce killings. A cross-section of 1085 fatalities in the 2015–2016 The Counted public-use database were matched to 481 agencies in the 2013 Law Enforcement Management and Administrative Statistics (LEMAS) database. Negative binomial regression estimated incidence rate ratios (IRR) adjusted for agency type, number of officers, percent female personnel, median income, percent with a bachelor’s degree, violent crime rate, and population size, with inference using robust standard errors. Agencies with greater proportions of full-time personnel (range 43–100%) had lower rates of all (IRR = 0.85; 95% confidence interval [CI] = 0.77–0.93) and non-White civilian killings (IRR = 0.85; CI = 0.73–0.99). Mission statements predicted lower rates of all (IRR = 0.70; CI = 0.58–0.84) and White killings (IRR = 0.60; CI = 0.40–0.90). Community evaluation and more types of personnel incentives predicted lower rates of White (IRR = 0.82; CI = 0.68–0.99) and non-White killings (IRR = 0.94; CI = 0.89–1.00), respectively. Increasing video use predicted higher rates of White killings (IRR = 1.13; CI = 1.01–1.28). No policies were significantly associated with Black civilian killings. Law enforcement policies that help reduce police killings may vary across racial groups with the least benefit for Black civilians. Impact evaluations and meta-analyses of initiatives aimed to mitigate fatalities should be explored, particularly policies to address anti-Black bias. A national registry tracking all police killings and agency policies is urgently needed to inform law enforcement policies aimed to mitigate civilian fatalities.

Opportunity knocks? Parking regulations and automotive thefts in the age of coronavirus

Purpose This paper aims to explore the relationship between adjustments in parking regulations in major American cities in response to the 2019 novel coronavirus and vehicle thefts. Design/methodology/approach Vehicle theft data from the 25 most populous American cities were collected between 2019 and 2020. Information was also collected on the type, severity and number of changes to parking enforcement regulations made in March and April 2020 in response to the outbreak of the coronavirus in the USA. Findings This analysis shows that the relaxation of parking regulations is associated with a significant increase in the number of vehicle thefts in major metropolitan areas. Research limitations/implications Although this research cannot prove a cause and effect relationship, statistical analysis of the data shows that policy change and vehicle thefts are related variables. Practical implications Guide for future policies-increase awareness; promote safety; promote accountability. Originality/value The comparison of increased vehicle thefts to parking enforcement policies; to policymakers, the general public.

The unintended consequences of US immigration enforcement policies

US immigration enforcement policy seeks to change the behaviors and views of not only individuals in the United States but also those of prospective migrants outside the United States. Yet we still know relatively little about the behavioral and attitudinal effects of US enforcement policy on the population abroad. This study uses a randomized experiment embedded in a nationally representative survey that was administered in El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Mexico to analyze the effects of US deterrence policies on individuals’ migration intentions and their attitudes toward the US immigration system. The two policies that the current study examines are immigration detention and nonjudicial removals. The survey results provide no evidence that a heightened awareness of these US immigration enforcement policies affects individuals’ intentions to migrate to the United States. But heightened awareness about the widespread use of immigration detention in the United States does negatively impact individuals’ assessments about the procedural and outcome fairness of the US immigration system. These findings suggest that immigration detention may foster delegitimating beliefs about the US legal system without producing the intended deterrent effect.

Enforcement policies: Frequency of inspection is more important than the severity of punishment

External enforcement policies aimed to reduce violations differ on two key components: the probability of inspection and the severity of punishments. Different lines of research offer competing predictions regarding the relative importance of each component. In three incentive compatible studies, students and Prolific crowdsourcing participants (Ntotal=430) repeatedly faced temptations to commit violations under two enforcement policies. Controlling for expected value, the results indicated that a policy combining High probability of Inspection with Low Severity of fine (HILS) was more effective than a policy combining Low probability of Inspection with High Severity of fine (LIHS). Consistent with the prediction of Decisions from Experience research, this finding held even when the severity of the fine was stated in advance to boost deterrence. In addition, the advantage of HILS over LIHS was greater as participants’ baseline rate of violation (without enforcement) was higher, implying that HILS is more effective among frequent offenders.

LAW ENFORCEMENT POLICIES IN CRIMINAL ACTS OF CORRUPTION IN INDONESIA

The law enforcement of corruption crimes that have been carried out so far only illustrates success in uncovering, arresting, detaining, prosecuting and convicted of the perpetrators who are found guilty. Still, it has not demonstrated success in eradicating corruption crimes widely. So that the success of such efforts creates a perception that Indonesia's corruption crimes are increasing, with this fact, what is illustrated is that Indonesia is a corrupt country. This is undoubtedly a contradiction with the expected goal of eradicating corruption crimes. The purpose of this article is to analyze corrupt law enforcement policies in Indonesia. This article concludes that amid national development efforts in various fields, the public's aspirations in eradicating corruption and any form are increasing because sin has caused enormous losses to the State, which could impact the emergence of crises in various fields. To overcome this, it is necessary to implement penal and non-penal policies to prevent criminal acts of corruption. Thus, the use of correctional and non-penal facilities must go hand in hand in overcoming corruption crimes

Immigrants in America

Chapter 4 illustrates how the immigrant experience is a key dimension of American life. Heather Koball uses national data to understand how policies shape the lives of immigrants. She describes two studies that analyze the impacts of policies on the health well-being of low-income immigrant families. In her look at Mexican-origin families in Phoenix, Airín D. Martínez examines the effects of racism and antagonistic immigration enforcement policies on health and stress. Kate Vickery illustrates the importance of collaborative strategies to promote a vibrant immigrant community. The chapter ends with Francesca Menes’s perspectives on Black immigrants, a diverse and understudied population. Menes illustrates how exclusionary public policies and institutional racism criminalize Black immigrants, drawing from her work in Miami to suggest an agenda for action and research.