Semantics of Imperative Statements in the Modern Kyrgyz Language

The cognitive features of imperative utterances in the modern Kyrgyz language have been investigated. As you know, the imperative has two different meanings: one means urgency, necessity and importance, and the other - attempts to influence the actions of other people. Imperative means something extremely important or necessary. It also means order. The analyzed imperative statements are considered in the mainstream of conceptual grammar, which allows you to highlight syntactic concepts, or mental images that stand behind linguistic signs and are reflected in the analyzed syntactic structures. The purpose of the article is to identify and describe imperative utterances in the Kyrgyz language, to reveal the mechanisms for changing the prototypical meaning of the verb lexicon in the structure of the imperative using theories such as the theory of functional styles, the theory of discourse, the theory of speech acts and the theory of grammar of constructions. The relevance of the article is due to the need to study the semantic features of the imperative statements of the modern Kyrgyz language. The purpose of this work is to show the features of imperatives, to carefully study the types and functions of imperatives in the Kyrgyz language. The data were analyzed using a comparative analysis to find out the differences and similarities of the imperatives of the Kyrgyz language with other languages. The study belongs to qualitative research, as it was conducted using the method of contrast analysis as a comparison of languages. The object of the research is the data imperatives were taken from the sources that were needed for the research.

An exploration of the structural and colligational characteristics of lexical bundles in L1–L2 corpora for English language teaching

Multi-word expressions are formulaic language universals with arbitrary and idiosyncratic collocations. Their usage and mastery are required of learners of a second language in achieving naturalness. However, despite the importance of multi-word expressions to mastering a second language, their syntactic architecture and colligational possibilities have received little attention in English language teaching (ELT). This study examined lexical bundles, a type of multi-word expressions, to understand their structure and co-occurrence possibilities with other syntactic elements. It was aided by an automated frequency-driven approach using two corpora, the British component of the British National Corpus – a first language (L1) corpus – and a purpose-built Nigerian Media Discourse corpus – a second language (L2) corpus. Two items of lexical analysis software were used to extract three-word lexical bundles with a minimum of 50 frequencies per corpus. The syntactic structures of the identified lexical bundles were determined, and their in-corpus usages were analysed for their colligational characteristics. Results showed that both corpora had instances of general and genre-specific lexical bundles (LBs) with varying frequencies. Five categories of lexical bundles with different structural patterns and peculiar colligational characteristics were identified in the study. Since lexical bundles are more frequently found in both L1–L2 texts, mastering how they are used will further enhance the teaching of English as a second language. The teaching of lexical bundles as a multi-word expression is therefore recommended in ELT as a way of enhancing learners’ proficiency and naturalness in English.

Structural and Semantic Analysis of English and Russian Proverbs about Marriage as a Source of Expression of Cultural and National Identity

The article is devoted to the comparative structural and semantic analysis of proverbs of the English and Russian languages with the meaning marriage. The novelty and relevance of the study consists in the fact that the proverbs that go to the heart of the current problems of marriage relations were first analyzed with the use of comparative approach in the context of structural and semantic analysis. In the course of the analysis, on the material of the proverbs of these languages, the main meanings of the proverbs were identified and systematized. The proverbs reveal the view on the value of marriage, the view on the predestination of marriage, the roles of husband and wife, controversial aspects of marital relations, as well as the question of the unity and strength of the family. An important part of the article is the study of male and female views on the problem of marriage, family life and the choice of a life partner. In English proverbs, a critical attitude towards marriage and the mention of the advantages of a bachelor life can be found more often. In Russian proverbs, marriage is generally viewed more positively but almost half of the proverbs that reveal the hardships of life in marriage are proverbs that convey a womans view of marriage. The article reveals lexical components, syntactic structures, artistic techniques and figurative means pertain to the proverbs of both linguistic and cultural ethnic groups. The presence of unique and distinctive proverbs in each language reflects the peculiarities of the historical and cultural experience of the two peoples, but the proverbs of both languages also have many common features. This is explained both by the community of human nature and knowledge, and by borrowing from common sources. Both Russian and English proverbs are characterized by using methods of comparison, contraposition, allegory, the use of personifying metaphors, lexical antonymy, the use of zoonyms, proper nouns and somatisms. In Russian, the emotional and expressive component is higher due to the use of diminutive suffixes, vernacular and vulgar words, they represent more widely archaisms and vocabulary associated with the realities of peasant life. Most Russian proverbs are composed according to the laws of the folklore genre and have a compositional completeness due to their rhythmic and phonetic design. Most of the English proverbs contain sayings, teachings, and use more abstract and neutral vocabulary, although there are also bright and original proverbs among them. The author reveals interaction of the figurative means and the conceptual component of proverbs and concludes that the linguistic means and figurative motivation of proverbs are related to the peculiarities of the national-cultural thinking of the both peoples.

LOCATIVE CONSTRUCTIONS IN MODERN UKRAINIAN AND RUSSIAN LANGUAGES: FACTS OF CONTRASTIVE ASYMMETRY

Closely related Ukrainian and Russian languages show similarities and differences that permeate different language levels. This problem, despite its long existence, is still relevant. Among the differences that relate to the compared languages, there are inconspicuous and contrasting. The object of the proposed study was the facts of contrastive asymmetry at the level of structures with a locative type of determination. Using the methods of synchronous descriptive, comparative-historical, comparative methods, as well as the method of complex analysis of semantic- syntactic structures, we stated the facts of contrastive asymmetry between Ukrainian and Russian syntactic structures with spatial meaning in four levels: 1) formal-grammatical, 2) semantic, 3) syntactic and 4) synonymous. The proposed division is somewhat conditional because semantics organically interacts with syntagmatics it is closely related to synonymy. The formal-grammatical contrastive asymmetry includes the same values of the construction V + PO + Nloc (Ukrainian language) and V + PO + Ndat (Russian language). Their functional possibilities, the lexical-semantic spectrum of verb, and adverbial placeholders are clarified. It is emphasized that the constructions V + PO + Nloc (Russian Ndat) enter into intra-singular synonymy in the Ukrainian language and inter-singular synonymy in the Russian language. It is proved that at the level of distributive possibilities contrastive asymmetry covers first of all the instrumental prepositional case as a representative of locativity. The differences also apply to the main carriers of valence (a specific feature of the Ukrainian language is that this function, along with verbs of purposeful, sometimes unfocused movement perform verbatives of specific semantics of physical and sound action), lexical and semantic composition of adverbial nouns (in Ukrainian, it is much wider), which is extrapolated to such semantic types as proper and common names of land routes, names of types of cover, areas covered with low vegetation, continents, states, geographical and administrative areas, devices and mechanisms that serve to transport something. It is established that the semantic asymmetry is manifested by the constructions V + Z-POZA + Ngen, V + Z-POPID + Ngen, V + Z-PONAD + Ngen, V + Z_POSERD + Ngen, V + Z_POMIZH + Ngen, V + POPID + Nасс, V + POPID + Ninst, V + POPERED + Ninst, V + POMIZH + Ninst, which actualize the shade of distributivity with the participation of the preposition component. Constructions with a specific semantic description are also recorded, which function in the Ukrainian language and are absent in the Russian language (V + POVZ + Nass, V + PERED + Nass, V + NAD + Nass, V + MIZH + Nass).

Semantic and Pragmatic Structures in Chomsky’s Binding Theory

The central question that this paper attempts is to describe the conditions under which the anaphor can be determined grammatically or contextually. The issue at hand is whether anaphoric forms can be distinguished from indexical ones within Binding theory. The syntactic representation of bindees are characterized by the use of indices. But what role does the context play in assigning co-referential or non-coreferential properties to anaphors? Furthermore, ellipses are also context-bound. An elliptical structure is indexical, rather than anaphoric. The study analyzes the syntactic structures of Chomsky’s Binding theory within Bolinger’s (1979) semantic model Meaning and Form. It seeks the support of other semanticists in order to fill possible semantic gaps in Binding theory. Keywords: binding theory, elliptical structures, meaning and form model

Optimalisasi Kompetensi Guru dalam Penerapan PjBL Berbasis STEM melalui IHT

This research aims to optimize teacher competence in implementing STEM-based PjBL through In House Training (IHT) by integrating school action research for teacher teachers in SD Negeri 6 Mataram. Research is conducted in 2 cycles with each cycle through the stages of planning, implementation and observation, evaluation and reflection. The research sample was a teacher of State Elementary School 6 Mataram which amounted to 10 people. The research began with STEM-based PjBL modeling, discussion of STEM-based PjBL learning and syntactic structures, STEM-based PjBL RPP design, and classroom application. These activities are integrated in the design of classroom action research. The results showed that In House Training (IHT) activities at SD Negeri 6 Mataram against teachers with the integration of school action research effectively improved teacher competence in implementing STEM-based PjBL.

A Morphosyntactic Analysis of Isamal Ergatives: Movement in Ergative Structures

Isamal is an Austronesian language spoken by around 8,000 indigenous people of Samal Island, Mindanao, Philippines. Fieldwork has shown that every speaker of Isamal is bilingual in Cebuano, the most dominant language in the island with a population of 104,123 according to Philippine Census (2015). This paper deals with the morphosyntax of Isamal ergatives, and analysis is made using the Minimalist Program with focus on the movement of elements in the structure. Verb morphology is given a description to lend a hand in the analytical scrutiny of the projections of the lexical information encoded in the argument and thematic structures of the verbs. Like all ergatives, Isamal ergatives have only one argument, that is, the theme-DP. There are three primary syntactic structures that are analyzed in this paper, namely, VP, TP, and CP. With the employment of the Minimalist Program for analysis, movement in the ergative structures shows that verbs, arguments and adjuncts can move.

The Hierarchical Organization of Syntax

Hierarchies are the backbones of complex systems and their analysis allows for a deeper understanding of their structure and how they evolve. We consider languages to be also complex adaptive systems. Hence, we analyzed the hierarchical organization of historical syntactic networks from German that were created from a corpus of texts from the 11th to 17th centuries. We tracked the emergence of syntactic structures in these networks and mapped them to specific communicative needs. We named these emerging structures communicative hierarchies. We hypothesise that the communicative needs of speakers are the organizational force of syntax. We propose that the emergence of these multiple communicative hierarchies is what shapes syntax, and that these hierarchies are the prerequisite to the Zipf's law. The emergence of communicative hierarchies indicates that the objective of language evolution is not only to increase the efficiency of transferring information. Language is also evolving to increase our capacity to communicate more sophisticated abstractions as we advance as a species.

Bilinguals have a single computational system but two compartmentalized phonological grammars: Evidence from code-switching

Classic linguistic models, such as Chomsky’s minimalist schematization of the human language faculty, were typically based on a ‘monolingual ideal’. More recently, models have been extended to bilingual cognition. For instance, MacSwan (2000) posited that bilinguals possess a single syntactic computational system and, crucially, two (or more) phonological grammars. The current paper examines this possible architecture of the bilingual language faculty by using code-switching data, since this type of speech is unique to bilingual and multilingual individuals. Specifically, the natural speech Maria, a habitual Spanish-English code-switcher from the Bangor Miami Corpus, was examined. For the interface of phonology, an analysis was completed on the frequency of syllabic structures used by Maria. Phonotactics were examined as Spanish and English impose differential restrictions on complex onsets and codas. The results indicated that Maria’s language of use impacted the phonotactics of her speech, but that the context of use (unilingual or code-switched) did not. This suggests that Maria was alternating between two independent phonological grammars when she was code-switching. For the interface of morphosyntax, syntactic dependencies within Maria’s code-switched speech and past literature were consulted. The evidence illustrates that syntactic dependencies are indeed established within code-switched sentences, indicating that such constructions are derived from a single syntactic subset. Thus, the quantitative and qualitative results from this paper wholly support MacSwan’s original conjectures regarding the bilingual language faculty: bilingual cognition appears to be composed of a single computational system which builds multi-language syntactic structures, and more than one phonological grammar.

Pragmatička uloga različitih tipova šutnje u romanu Kafamda bir tuhaflik autora Orhana Pamuka

In certain conversational settings, silence does not only represent the absence of speech, but it is used as a means of communication conveying different meanings. The objective of this paper is to analyze the pragmatic role of silence in Orhan Pamuk's novel Kafamda Bir Tuhaflık. Examples of silence are registered in the original text of the novel Kafamda Bir Tuhaflık and contrastive analysis was used to compare them with the types of silence presented in the translations to Bosnian language. This was used to try to establish whether certain types of silence have an identical pragmatic value in Turkish and Bosnian language. The analysis compares syntactic structures expressing different types of silence in the original text of the novel and its translations to Bosnian language. Turkish language is the initial language of the analysis. Therefore, syntactic structures expressing different examples of silence in the original text of the novel are compared to the translational equivalents in Bosnian language. The analysis of specific contextual examples shows that the success of interpersonal communication depends to a great extent on accurate knowledge and understanding of different types of silence. The results obtained from the analysis contribute to better knowledge and understanding of different types of silence in different conversational settings and they can serve as a good basis and a good starting point for further research regarding different types of silence.