Extrinsically Integrated Instructional Quizzes in Learning Games: An Educational Disaster or Not?

Instructional quizzes are frequently used in educational games. When they present correct answers after learners have responded, these quizzes can be used on their own for teaching new factual and conceptual knowledge (no additional learning materials are needed). In games, these quizzes are often unrelated to gameplay: gameplay can be viewed as a reward for answering quiz questions. This has been criticized in game-based learning literature as a “chocolate-covered-broccoli” approach. However, is it really a bad approach? Theories offer conflicting predictions concerning the instructional efficiency of in-game quizzes relative to bare quizzes (i.e., not embedded in games) and empirical literature is lacking. Here, we present a within-subject design study (N = 69), in which 10–12-year-olds learn from both an in-game quiz and a bare quiz and undergo immediate and 2–3 weeks delayed post-test on the quiz questions. A modest difference in learning outcomes favoring the bare quiz was found in the immediate post-tests (d = 0.46), but not in the 2–3 weeks delayed post-tests (d = 0.09). Children enjoyed the game more than the bare quiz (dz = 0.65) and 59 preferred the game in the free-choice period. The findings suggest that both a bare quiz and a quiz within a game have their place at the table for useful educational interventions: the bare quiz should be preferred in schooling contexts; whereas, the game in leisure time situations as a voluntary activity. In the latter case, it should be considered how the game and the quiz are integrated.

Intrinsic motivation in virtual assistant interaction for fostering spontaneous interactions

With the growing utility of today’s conversational virtual assistants, the importance of user motivation in human–artificial intelligence interactions is becoming more obvious. However, previous studies in this and related fields, such as human–computer interaction, scarcely discussed intrinsic motivation (the motivation to interact with the assistants for fun). Previous studies either treated motivation as an inseparable concept or focused on non-intrinsic motivation (the motivation to interact with the assistant for utilitarian purposes). The current study aims to cover intrinsic motivation by taking an affective engineering approach. A novel motivation model is proposed, in which intrinsic motivation is affected by two factors that derive from user interactions with virtual assistants: expectation of capability and uncertainty. Experiments in which these two factors are manipulated by making participants believe they are interacting with the smart speaker “Amazon Echo” are conducted. Intrinsic motivation is measured both by using questionnaires and by covertly monitoring a five-minute free-choice period in the experimenter’s absence, during which the participants could decide for themselves whether to interact with the virtual assistants. Results of the first experiment showed that high expectation engenders more intrinsically motivated interaction compared with low expectation. However, the results did not support our hypothesis that expectation and uncertainty have an interaction effect on intrinsic motivation. We then revised our hypothetical model of action selection accordingly and conducted a verification experiment of the effects of uncertainty. Results of the verification experiment showed that reducing uncertainty encourages more interactions and causes the motivation behind these interactions to shift from non-intrinsic to intrinsic.

0497 Rebound Insomnia During Discontinuation of Chronic Hypnotic Use

Introduction Rebound insomnia refers to worsened sleep relative to baseline on 1-2 nights after discontinuation of active hypnotic medication. Rebound is typically assessed using a placebo substitution. We assessed rebound in an on-going “blinded” clinical trial in which people with insomnia are instructed to discontinue their study medication (i.e., no-pill) after 6 months of nightly use. Methods DSM-V diagnosed people with insomnia (n=31, 26 females), aged 26-61 yrs, with a polysomnographic sleep efficiency of ≤85%, no other sleep disorders, unstable medical or psychiatric diseases or drug dependency completed the clinical trial. Participants were randomized to zolpidem XR (12.5 mg), eszopiclone (3 mg) or placebo nightly for 6 months (blinded groups A: n=11, B: n=9, C: n=11). After 6 months, over a 2-week choice period, they were given the instruction to discontinue their nightly hypnotic use with an opportunity, if necessary, to self-administer either 1, 2, or 3 capsules of their assigned medication (zolpidem XR 6.25 mg, 6.25 mg, placebo; eszopiclone 2 mg, 1 mg, placebo as capsules 1, 2 and 3 respectively; or 3 placebos). On baseline and the14 discontinuation nights, sleep was recorded and scored by actigraphy for sleep efficiency (SE), sleep latency (LAT) and wake after sleep onset (WASO). Results Relative to the baseline night, on the first discontinuation night there was no difference in SE, LAT, and WASO. Fifteen subjects stopped taking study medication when told to discontinue and 16 subjects took study medication on one night or more. While not differing on baseline or night 1, on night 14 the last study night the medication users had a lower SE (75.9 vs 87.7 %, p<.0.004) and a longer LAT (61.5 vs 14.5 min, p<0.05). Conclusion Difficulty discontinuing hypnotic use is not specifically related to rebound insomnia. We reported in a companion abstract those with insomnia and hyperarousal, defined by MSLT, are those with difficulty discontinuing hypnotic use and as shown here slept poorly on the last study night. Support NIDA, grant#: R01DA038177 awarded to Dr. Roehrs

0492 Sleep and Hyperarousal: Inability to Discontinue Chronic Hypnotic Use

Introduction Inability to discontinue chronic hypnotic use by people with insomnia remains a clinical concern. Sleep and hyperarousal was examined in an on-going “blinded” clinical trial in which people with insomnia are instructed to discontinue their study medication after 6 months of nightly use. Methods DSM-V diagnosed people with insomnia (n=31, 26 females), aged 23-61 yrs, with a polysomnographic sleep efficiency (SE) of ≤85% on a 8-hr polysomnogram, no other sleep disorders, unstable medical or psychiatric diseases or drug dependency have completed the clinical trial. Participants were randomized to zolpidem XR (12.5 mg), eszopiclone (3 mg) or placebo nightly for 6 months (blinded groups A: n=11, B: n=9, C: n=11). After 6 months, over a 2-week choice period, they were given the instruction to discontinue their nightly hypnotic use with an opportunity, if necessary, to self-administer either 1, 2, or 3 capsules of their assigned medication (zolpidem XR 6.25 mg as capsule 1, 6.25 mg as capsule 2, placebo as capsule 3; eszopiclone 2 mg, 1 mg, and placebo as capsules 1, 2 and 3 respectively; or 3 placebos. Results Fifteen subjects stopped taking study medication when told to discontinue. The other 16 subjects who took study medication (users) had longer MSLT (a measure of hyperarousal) sleep latency (16.2 vs 8.3 min) than non-users (p<.001) at baseline. At baseline users and non-users had similarly disturbed nocturnal sleep: SE 73.4 vs 73.9 %, with sleep latencies of 54 vs 40 min and wake time after sleep onset of 90 vs 104 min. Conclusion Hyperarousal, defined by MSLT and high diurnal urinary cortisol levels, has been found in some people with insomnia. High MSLTs were previously associated with dose escalation in a chronic zolpidem use study. These emerging data would suggest high MSLT may also be predictive of difficulty discontinuing hypnotic use. Support NIDA, grant#: R01DA038177 awarded to Dr. Roehrs

0496 Self-Reported Sleep During Discontinuation of Chronic Hypnotic Use

Introduction Inability to discontinue chronic hypnotic use by people with insomnia remains a clinical concern. Self-reported sleep in an on-going “blinded” clinical trial in which people with insomnia are instructed to discontinue their study medication after 6 months of nightly use was examined and compared to objective actigraphic recordings of their sleep. Methods DSM-V diagnosed people with insomnia (n=31, 26 females), aged 26-61 yrs, with a polysomnographic sleep efficiency of ≤85%, no other sleep disorders, unstable medical or psychiatric diseases or drug dependency completed the clinical trial. Participants were randomized to zolpidem XR (12.5 mg), eszopiclone (3 mg) or placebo nightly for 6 months (blinded groups A: n=11, B: n=9, C: n=11). After 6 months, over a 2-week choice period, they were given the instruction to discontinue their nightly hypnotic use with an opportunity, if necessary, to self-administer either 1, 2, or 3 capsules of their assigned medication (zolpidem XR 6.25 mg, 6.25 mg, placebo; eszopiclone 2 mg, 1 mg, placebo as capsules 1, 2 and 3 respectively; or 3 placebos). On post-sleep questionnaires they reported sleep latency (LAT), wake after sleep onset (WASO), and sleep quality (Q:1-5; best - worst). Results 15 subjects stopped taking study medication when told to discontinue. The 16 subjects who took study medication had shorter LAT on nights they took capsules then on nights they did not (31 vs 38 min, p<.03), less WASO (22 vs 44 min, p<.02) and better Q (2.3 vs 3.2, p<.002). In contrast, actigraphic recordings of sleep showed no differences in LAT, WASO, or SE. Conclusion For subjects who took study medication during the nights they were instructed to discontinue, they reported better sleep than on the nights they used no medication, although objectively their sleep did not differ. Support NIDA, grant#: R01DA038177 awarded to Dr. Roehrs

0494 Ability to Discontinue Chronic Hypnotic Use: An Update

Introduction Physicians prescribing hypnotics remain concerned regarding patient’s inability to discontinue hypnotics after chronic use. That concern has never been directly tested in a controlled prospective study using self-administration choice procedures. This is an update on results from an on-going “blinded” clinical trial in which insomnia subjects are instructed to stop taking their study medication after 6 months of nightly use. Methods DSM-V diagnosed insomnia subjects, aged 23-61 yrs, (n=31, 26 females), with disturbed sleep (i.e., polysomnographic sleep efficiency of ≤85%), no other sleep disorder, unstable medical or psychiatric diseases or drug dependency completed the trial. Participants were randomized to zolpidem XR (12.5 mg), eszopiclone (3 mg), or placebo nightly for 6 months (blinded groups A: n=11, B: n=9, C: n=11). After 6 months, nightly use, over a 2-week choice period, they were instructed to discontinue hypnotic use, but if necessary, to self-administer either 1, 2, or 3 capsules of their assigned medication (zolpidem XR 6.25 mg, 6.25 mg, placebo; eszopiclone 2 mg, 1 mg, placebo as capsules 1, 2 and 3 respectively; or 3 placebos). Results The number of capsules taken declined from week 1 to 2 (p< .001). Over the 2 weeks 15 participants took 0 (48%), 12 ≤ 6 (39%) and 4 ≥10 total capsules (1 each took 42, 19, 13, and 10). Among those taking capsules, most took one capsule per night and 6 took > 1 capsule. Those 4 taking ≥ 10 were younger (p<.05), but did not differ in screening sleep efficiency or blinded treatment group. Importantly 1 subject took every capsule available. Conclusion The majority (87%) of the participants discontinued 6-month nightly hypnotic use (i.e. took ≤ 6 total capsules) and among those taking capsules the rate declined from week 1 to 2. Age may help identify the few with difficulty discontinuing. Support NIDA, grant#: R01DA038177 awarded to Dr. Roehrs

Intermittent subthalamic nucleus deep brain stimulation induces risk-aversive behavior in human subjects

The subthalamic nucleus (STN) is a small almond-shaped subcortical structure classically known for its role in motor inhibition through the indirect pathway within the basal ganglia. Little is known about the role of the STN in mediating cognitive functions in humans. Here, we explore the role of the STN in human subjects making decisions under conditions of uncertainty using single-neuron recordings and intermittent deep brain stimulation (DBS) during a financial decision-making task. Intraoperative single-neuronal data from the STN reveals that on high-uncertainty trials, spiking activity encodes the upcoming decision within a brief (500 ms) temporal window during the choice period, prior to the manifestation of the choice. Application of intermittent DBS selectively prior to the choice period alters decisions and biases subject behavior towards conservative wagers.

Neuronal dynamics supporting formation and recombination of cross-modal olfactory-tactile association in the rat hippocampal formation

The present study is aimed at describing some aspects of the neural dynamics supporting discrimination of olfactory-tactile paired-associated stimuli during acquisition of new pairs and during recombination of previously learned pairs in the rat. To solve the task, animals have to identify one odor-texture (OT) combination associated with a food reward among three cups with overlapping elements. Previous experiments demonstrated that the lateral entorhinal cortex (LEC) is involved in the processes underlying OT acquisition, whereas the dorsal hippocampus (DH) is selectively involved in the recombination processes. In the present study, local field potentials were recorded form the anterior piriform cortex (aPC), LEC, and DH in freely moving rats performing these tasks. Signal analysis focused on theta (5–12 Hz)- and beta-band (15–40 Hz) oscillatory activities in terms of both amplitude and synchrony. The results show that cue sampling was associated with a significant increase in the beta-band activity during the choice period in both the aPC and the LEC, and is modulated by level of expertise and the animal’s decision. In addition, this increase was significantly higher during the recombination compared with the acquisition of the OT task, specifically when animals had to neglect the odor previously associated with the reward. Finally, a significant decrease in coherence in the theta band between LEC and DH was observed in the recombination but not in the acquisition task. These data point to specific neural signatures of simple and complex cross-modal sensory processing in the LEC-DH complex. NEW & NOTEWORTHY This study is the first to describe electrophysiological correlates of cross-modal olfactory-tactile integration in rats. Recordings were sought from the lateral entorhinal cortex and the dorsal hippocampus because previous studies have shown their role in the formation and in the recombination of previously learned associations. We identified specific oscillatory-evoked neural responses in these structures in the theta and beta bands, which characterize acquisition and recombination of cross-modal olfactory-tactile pairs.

Professional safety in a career choice period: empirical explication of professional reserves of a personality

The article represents theoretical grounding and empirical determination of psychological reserves of a personality’s professional safety in its career choice period. The main aspects of the suggested research position of theoretical analysis and program development of empirical diagnostic research have been outlined. Theoretical conceptualization of the problem touches consideration of personality’s professional safety aspects in a career choice period and specifics experience of social satisfaction of young people as a feature of personality’s readiness to improve the quality of professional and personal life in future. The developed program of empirical research as well as the complex of used methods of mathematical processing of the research results allows to concretize the content of social frustrational determination of a career choice in senior school age: the increased sequence of social frustration level parameters is reflected in the change of its psychological features from the emancipated independence and rational responsibility to the intellectual estrangement.

Brain activity, regional gray matter loss, and decision-making in multiple sclerosis

Background: Decision-making (DM) abilities deteriorate with multiple sclerosis (MS) disease progression which impairs everyday life and is thus clinically important. Objective: To investigate the underlying neurocognitive processes and their relation to regional gray matter (GM) loss induced by MS. Methods: We used a functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) Iowa Gambling Task to measure DM-related brain activity in 36 MS patients and 21 healthy controls (HC). From this activity, we determined neural parameters of two cognitive stages, a deliberation (“choice”) period preceding a choice and a post-choice (“feedback”) stage reporting decision outcomes. These measures were related to DM separately in intact and damaged GM areas as determined by a voxel-based morphometry analysis. Results: Severely affected patients (with high lesion burden) showed worse DM-learning than HC ( t = −1.75, p = 0.045), moderately affected (low lesion burden) did not. Activity in the choice stage in intact insular ( t = 4.60, pFamily-Wise Error [FWE] corrected = 0.034), anterior cingulate ( t = 4.50, pFWE = 0.044), and dorsolateral prefrontal areas ( t = 4.43, pFWE = 0.049) and in insular areas with GM loss ( t = 3.78, pFWE = 0.011) was positively linked to DM performance across patients with severe tissue damage and HC. Furthermore, activity in intact orbitofrontal areas was positively linked to DM-learning during the feedback stage across these participants ( t = 4.49, pFWE = 0.032). During none of the stages, moderately affected patients showed higher activity than HC, which might have indicated preserved DM due to compensatory activity. Conclusion: We identified dysregulated activity linked to impairment in specific cognitive stages of reward-related DM. The link of brain activity and impaired DM in areas with MS-induced GM loss suggests that this deficit might be tightly coupled to MS neuropathology.