Production and primary processing of grain in the Ung, Bereg, Ugocha and Maramoros counties in the Middle Ages

The present research deals with the medieval grain production and the primary processing of it in Ung, Bereg, Ugocsa and Maramures counties. In the Middle Ages, the primary foodstuff was bread, which could be made from a variety of grains. In today's Transcarpathia, bread was made primarily using wheat and rye, which were crucial parts of the everyday eating. After the founding of the Hungarian state, the branch of the food production underwent a transformation, namely the animal-husbandry was slowly replaced by tillage. With the continuous development of the village system, indoor and outdoor farming were also spreading. Grain was grown on arable land away from the house, which has been a high priority. In order to understand the system based on family farming, principally the number of family members must be calculated, and then the average number of settlements follows from the obtained data, which gives the amount of land required per families and settlements to produce grain for bread. The bread was baked in a two-week cycle, when the family gained 30 kg. The growing crops for bread is the first stage of the process, which is followed by milling, i.e. the second stage. Grinding took place in mills, of which several varieties are separated. In the case of our region, watermills were widespread, of which there are also several types. We separate a stream mill and a floating mill from water mills. In the case of our region, both varieties have been identified. The mills did not work all year round, they could only work at the proper water level. Therefore, neither in winter cold nor in summer the mill could not work, so the grinding of flour needed for bread took place mainly in spring and autumn. Mills were one of the most complex technological machines of the time, the operation and maintenance of which required a specialist with relevant knowledge. Mills can be used for grinding grain, as well as for sawing and grinding wood. By examining the available resources, tens of mills were localized in the four counties, which also sheds light on the technological development of the age.

Načrti avtonomne in upravne organiziranosti Slovenske krajine v obdobju Károlyijeve ljudske republike (od novembra 1918 do marca 1919)

The article discusses a specific field of the history of the Prekmurje Slovenes and the Prekmurje area itself, from the end of the First World War to the formation of the Hungarian Soviet Republic, namely attempts to find a solution for the administrative or autonomous organization of the Slovene community there, to keep the Prekmurje area as a part of the Hungarian state. Various Slovene and Hungarian studies have mentioned contents related to attempts at the autonomous or administrative organization of the Slovene community (probably most thoroughly written by László Kővágó and Miroslav Kokolj). However, there have been almost no articles that would focus directly on this topic. In the context of the preparation of this article we have primarily processed the Hungarian and Slovene archive resources (as well as some newly researched ones), published local newspapers from that period (especially Novine and Muraszombat és vidéke) and a part of literature, where the authors – allthough the studies were mostly ideologically oriented – also devoted major attention to substantive questions of the planned autonomous and administrative arrangements of Prekmurje Slovenes.

The Hungarian-Jewish Social Contract, its Rupture, and Jewish Death Rituals

This article explores the supposedly reciprocal social contract between “Greater Hungary” and its Jewish population from the “Golden Age” of the Dual Monarchy to its rupture in the Holocaust. The afterlife of this broken contract will be addressed through the upkeep and neglect of cemeteries in Subcarpathia and Hungary proper. Along the way, I present memoiristic vignettes that illustrate the challenge of loyalty to state / military authority and death rituals in the time of the 1918-1919 Hungarian-Romanian War, Jewish mourning in the context of Czechoslovakia’s loss of Subcarpathia, and the disjuncture between the normal praxis of death ritual and the spectre of Auschwitz-Birkenau, as well as the ritual contrast to Hungarian Jews who were deported, but not to Auschwitz. I also turn to the historical research of Tim Cole and Daniel Rosenthal, in conjunction with Hungarian (especially North-Transylvanian) Holocaust memoirs, to reflect on Holocaust-era suicide as a mode of victims’ resistance to their brutalization by Hungarian gendarmes -- the pinnacle of the betrayal of the erstwhile contract between Hungarian state authority and its Jewish population.

Condition Assessment of Solar Modules by Flash Test and Electroluminescence Test

The Hungarian society and the Hungarian state are constantly increasing their solar capacity. More and more solar power plants are being put into operation. The largest of these has a 100 MW peak capacity. Such power plants do not require constant maintenance. However, in the case of low productivity, a conditional assessment is required. The reason for production loss can also be manufacturing, installation, and operational errors. A flying drone was used for finding failures by thermographic scouting. Furthermore, electroluminescent (EL) and flash tests give a comprehensive view of the real state of the modules in a mobile laboratory. We had the opportunity to summarize these test results of more than a thousand modules operating in a solar power plant. The report on the power plant shows that a significant part of the modules became unusable in a short time. After four years, 10% of the 260 Wp modules suffered a performance reduction of more than 10%.

A házasságon kívül született gyermek jogállása különös tekintettel a tartásdíj kiszabásának bírói gyakorlatára 1945 és 1950 között Magyarországon

There was a legal differentiation between children born in and out of wedlock in 1945. The Hungarian State recognised that this differentiation was outdated, thus the Act XXIX of 1946 on the legal status of children born out of wedlock came into force on June 7, 1947. The aims of the Act were that it should cease the differentiation between children born in and out of wedlock and their legal status shall be equal to legitimate children, and the children born out of wedlock (illegitimate children) shall be related to their fathers and their fathers’ kin. It was the first comprehensive regulation regarding child support that came into effect. The study presents the regulations of child support between 1945 and 1950 in Hungary and discloses the court practice regarding child support of the District Court of Zalaegerszeg in the designated period.

A szórvány magyar tanköteles gyermekek családon kívüli elhelyezése Baranyában az 1941–1942-es tanévben

The framework for the placing of Hungarian compulsory school children outside the family was based on the 25.360/1941. Religion and Public Education Ministerial decree, which constituted new provisions from the 1941/1942 school year for the education of native Hungarian children living in non-Hungarian environment. The reason for issuing the decree was the growing demand of the nationalities for education in their native language, which the Hungarian state – after the failure of the unified education system introduced in 1935 – made available to them in 1941. This measure was supported by nationalities as well, but at the same time we must not forget that the Horthy-era represented a strong national policy, and the patriotic, national education began in elementary school. Thus, the education of Hungarian children could not be neglected while striving to fulfil the needs of nationalities. According to paragraph 1 of the 25.360/1941. Religion and Public Education Ministerial decree on the education of Hungarian children: ‘A native Hungarian compulsory school child living in Hungary, who stays in a not native Hungarian environment must be educated in a Hungarian school or class, by a traveling teacher, in a Hungarian boarding school, or in another native Hungarian environment.’ The placing of children outside the family was only necessary if there was no school with Hungarian educational language in the municipality, because in that case ‘a native Hungarian child living in the municipality (city) can only be sent by his or her tutelary to such a school, until reaching the age of compulsory schooling.’ In accordance with the decree, from the summer of 1941 the Education Inspectorate collected data on the native Hungarian compulsory school children who lived in a non-Hungarian environment to provide them enrolment elsewhere. The first version of the options listed in the decree (Hungarian school or class in municipality) is not the subject of the study, since in that case, the child remains in the family. The second version – a traveling teacher – would not cause change either, but I did not find any example of this in the archives anyway. What may be more interesting in the terms of Family law is the placing in a boarding school or with a family of a relative or acquaintance in native Hungarian environment - this is indicated by the phrase in an otherwise ‘native Hungarian environment’. I give examples of these cases – boarding school and placement in Hungarian families – from practice based on archival records.

The post-2010 ‘Democratic Rule of Law’ practice of the Hungarian Constitutional Court under a rule by law governance

The paper focuses on the democratic rule of law principle as it appeared in the practice of the Hungarian Constitutional Court under the 1989 Constitution and the 2012 Fundamental Law. The rule of law doctrine had a paramount role in the argumentation of the Court in the 1990s as a normative fact and a programme of the Hungarian state. Under the Fundamental Law introduced in 2012, however, it has been somewhat relegated to the background in case law. The study first recalls the main achievements and characteristics of the democratic rule of law state interpretations of the Constitutional Court and then focuses on developments since the introduction of the Fundamental Law. On the one hand, it outlines the constitutional and institutional capacity of the court regarding the protection of the rule of law principle. On the other hand, it reveals the characteristics of the post-FL interpretation through case studies in the field of legal certainty and judicial independence, both of which were representative elements of the pre-2010 constitutional practice from the point of view of the democratic rule of law state doctrine.

The Fortunes of Hungarian Children’s Literature at Home and in the English-Speaking World

This paper asks why so few works of Hungarian children’s literature have made it to publication in English-speaking countries. It finds that few translated children’s books make it onto the English-language market and those translations that are successful mainly appear in major European languages. Representation at the Bologna Children’s Book Fair has been dogged by a lack of financial resources and polish while Hungarian State funding has lacked continuity. Nearly all the English translations of Hungarian children’s books available today have been published in Hungary, although a book will occasionally find its way to foreign publishers by informal means. This paper also follows the development of Hungarian children’s literature from the late nineteenth century to the present day, noting changes in terms of character, subject matter and attitudes to diversity and use of the fairy-tale tradition. It outlines one recent controversy surrounding the publication of Meseország mindenkié [’Storyland for Everybody’], a book which aims, in contrast to the current regime’s ideology, to represent the marginalized in Hungarian society. It also details recent clashes sparked by the new Hungarian National School Curriculum and one writer’s feminist critique of a classic text.

Seeking Representation: The Development of Hungarian Minority Parties in Serbia and Slovakia

Ever since the 1920 Treaty of Trianon there have been sizable Hungarian minorities found in countries neighbouring the modern Hungarian state. Since the fall of authoritarian communist regimes and the rise of political plurality these minorities have sought representation, often through minority parties. This lens of political parties is applied in this article, in order to examine the seeking of representation by the Hungarian ethnic minority in Serbia and Slovakia. The overall development of parties is outlined, the stages of their development is illustrated and each stage is analysed in detail. The main findings are that Hungarian minority representation is incredibly fragmented and dogged by conflict in both countries, involving many splits in parties, with the formation and liquidation of parties common. However, during exceptional times they were able to show a united front to nationalist governments, this was observed in both Slovakia and Serbia. In more recent times conflict has returned to the fore, with the situations somewhat divergent. The high level of conflict within those seeking to offer political representation to the Hungarian minority in Serbia was notable, as was a lack of an end in sight. On the other hand, there were attempts to unite made in Slovakia, although they are yet to experience much success.

COMMON LAW IN MEDIEVAL HUNGARIAN SOURCES

This work examines the issues of consolidation of customary law in medieval Hungarian sources. The relevance of the study of customary law as the most important part of the socio-normative culture and the traditional legal regulator, normatively fixing ethnic identity, expressed not only in the national-cultural worldview, but also in the written medieval Hungarian sources that operated for many centuries, starting from the origins of the creation of the Hungarian state until the beginning of the XVI century, no doubt. The aim of the work is to study customary law, its institutions in the sources of law of medieval Hungary. The novelty of the research lies in the fact that it analyzes the empirical historical and legal material, which makes it possible to identify the institutions of customary law in the medieval Magyar sources of law. In a comprehensive study of customary legal aspects, in Hungarian sources of law, it is important to be guided not only by the formational approach, which makes it possible to understand the changes that took place in the medieval period, during the emergence and development of feudal relations in the Western European state, but also by the civilizational approach, revealing the historical, political, socio-cultural components of the feudal Christian state. The methodological basis of this research is formed by a system of cognitive methods developed by various modern sciences. Thanks to the application of the systemic method, the customary law of the Hungarian people is important to consider as an element of the legal space of Hungary as a Central European state. The study shows that the Hungarians had a law as their initial act. Many Hungarian customs and customary legal institutions found their fixation precisely in written sources of law.