Positive Emotions

Positive emotions have long been studied as markers of people’s overall well-being or happiness, but looking at positive emotions as outcomes is just the beginning. This chapter focuses on the various facets of positive emotions, including how they are measured (behaviorally, psychologically, physiologically), their outcomes, and their subjective experience. The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions is described, with empirical research described that supports both the broadening effects and the building effects that arise from experiences of positive emotions. Empirical research that investigates physiological and neurological connections and intervention studies that examine the effects of positive emotions on stress, health, and resilience are discussed. Finally, future directions that examine different models of positive emotion as well as the differentiation of positive emotions are discussed.

Positive Aging from a Lifespan Perspective

This chapter discusses positive aging from a lifespan perspective. That is, it situates later life within the life as a whole and differentiates two periods within later life – the third (young-old) and fourth (oldest-old) ages. While discussing multiple dimensions of biopsychosocial aging, which include physical and cognitive health, the chapter gives primary attention to psychosocial aging, where great potential exists for cross-fertilization with positive psychology. The chapter begins with brief discussion of demographics (i.e., the aging of societies around the globe) and definitional issues, recognizing that there are multiple traditions within gerontology that have addressed positive dimensions of the aging process. Then, employing gerontology’s distinction between the third and fourth ages of life, we discuss the potential for positive experience during the fourth age and the more extensive areas of positive functioning that characterize the third age. In closing, we identify several interventions that promote aging well and suggest ways of approaching research in this area.

Neurogenetics of Resilience

Our ability to recover from a negative experiences has profound implications not only for mental disorder but also for healthy living; while some individuals are deeply affected by life stressors and develop poor mental health, others seem to overcome even major traumatic events quickly and effortlessly. Critically, individual differences in resilience reflect underlying differences in the neural and genetic mechanisms implemented by different individuals to cope with hardship. Recent advances in functional neuroimaging and molecular genetics have given rise to a synthetic approach referred to as Imaging Genetics with great potential to develop a more fine-grained neurobiological characterization of optimal human functioning. The goal of imaging genetics is to identify mid-level phenotypes, or endophenotypes, in the form of brain activity patterns that reveal genetic influences on specific cognitive and emotional neural processes in the path from genes to behavior, and disorder. Recent years have seen increasing interest in understanding the genetic and neural basis of resilience. In this context, optimal functioning is not defined as the absence of disease but rather as the characteristics and conditions that allow a person to live well, thrive, and flourish. In this chapter we introduce the imaging genetics approach by providing methodological considerations, and discussing relevant studies and future directions as they may relate to resilience and the field of positive psychology in general.

The Experience of Flow: Theory and Research

This chapter describes flow, the experience of complete absorption in the present moment, and the experiential approach to positive psychology that it represents. Flow theory and research have suggested one answer to the question of what constitutes a good life. The model of optimal experience and development that is associated with the concept of flow is summarized, and the chapter describes several ways of measuring flow, giving particular attention to the experience sampling method. Some recent research concerning the outcomes and dynamics of flow, its conditions at school and work, and interventions that have been employed to foster flow are reviewed. Finally, some of the promising directions for flow research moving into the future are identified.

Applications of Positive Psychology

It is in the applications of positive psychology that the area has the most potential to impact people’s lives. As such, it is here that the greatest rigor needs to be used to evaluate the claims of the potential of positive psychology approaches, lest they do harm, either directly or through crowding out existing more effective approaches. This chapter discusses the changes that have occurred in the area of positive psychology applications over the last 15 years and the issues that have emerged, including the initial enthusiasm, later criticisms, and the high potential for new research into positive psychology applications at the present time. Positive psychology can inform and readily sit within the current zeitgeist of a number of applied areas, benefiting itself from the win–win of interdisciplinary collaboration. The chapter concludes that the greatest potential is to remove the arbitrary separation of focusing on either the “positive” or the “negative” in applied fields. Such an approach is already gaining traction within clinical and health psychology, and there is potential for this to expand to other applied fields. The various positive interventions that have been developed are viewed as promising, but not yet meeting normal clinical standards of evidence. Such trials are strongly encouraged to be carried out to ensure that positive interventions are properly evidence based, and so that those that do work can be more widely used in evidence-based practice.

The Future of Positive Psychology

Over the last two decades, research about and applications of positive psychology have grown considerably. From identifying constructs, to developing complex theories, to establishing evidence-based and empirically supported interventions, positive psychology has moved from early inklings of visionary scholars to a recognized, established science among a community of students and professionals worldwide. This chapter discusses three emerging areas that bridge the advances to date with challenging, yet attainable, goals for the future of positive psychology: greater balance, greater attention to children and adolescents, and further expansion globally to diverse populations. Insights from leading scholars and their views on the future of positive psychology are shared as well.

Humility: A Qualitative Review

Humility has gained empirical traction as a character strength. Between January 2000 and August 2015, 96 empirical articles on humility were published, and we conducted a qualitative systematic review. Humility was defined as having three aspects: accurate self-presentation and attitude of teachability; modest self-presentation; and other-orientedness. Several types of humility were identified. The findings are organized into seven hypotheses. The most support was found for the social hypotheses, spiritual hypothesis, virtues and vices hypotheses, societal peace hypothesis, and structure of humility hypothesis. For the structure of humility, the first two aspects are well supported, but it is unclear whether humility requires an orientation toward others or merely lack of self-focus. Little evidence supported the Humility–Health hypotheses. Little evidence supported the connection between humility and ultimate life satisfaction. The chapter suggests an urgent need to investigate little-studied hypotheses, especially health-related hypotheses.

Psychotherapy, Counseling, and Coaching

This chapter analyzes three dominant approaches to mental health interventions: psychotherapy, counseling, and coaching. Their commonalities, as well as their main differences, are emphasized by using a continuum model encompassing time perspective; recipients of these interventions (ranging from patients with severe psychopathology, to distressed individuals, to normal populations); and types of therapeutic strategies that are applied. Psychotherapy, counseling, and coaching are differentiated in some ways because the first mainly refers to a medical model, whereas counseling and coaching rely on communication strategies. However, in current practice the distinctions are not as clear. Furthermore, they all share common ingredients, such as the working alliance, positive expectations, and the promotion of well-being.

Positive Processes in Close Relationships

Although psychologists have learned a great deal about negative and harmful processes in relationships, they have focused less on understanding the positive and beneficial processes in relationships. Of course, almost every close relationship offers the promise of both meaningful rewards and substantial risks, such as support, intimacy, companionship, conflict, rejection, and criticism. In this chapter, we attempt to highlight the complexities involved in relationships and emphasize the positive processes, with the goal of creating a picture that represents the dynamic reality of the social world. We first discuss the important role that intimate relationships play in human life and their strong links with health and well-being. We then highlight research on the positive processes in relationships, such as positive emotions, intimacy, growth of the self-concept, and the benefits of sharing positive events. This work complements previous literature, which has tended to focus on the potential pitfalls in relationships. Inherent in our position is that a lack of negatives in a relationship is not equivalent to a positive relationship; just as an absence of psychopathology is not equivalent to flourishing. We end with outlining future directions in the positive psychology of relationships, such as a greater focus on biology and health and the need for examining moderating conditions.

Widening the Diagnostic Focus

Positive psychology challenges a common error of professional psychology regarding making diagnostic, treatment, and policy decisions primarily with regard to the deficiencies of the person instead of giving serious consideration to deficits and strengths of both the person and the environment. This mission may seem disheartening in that it requires greater rather than less cognitive complexity. Yet this multifaceted focus is crucial if two system concepts—whole person and behavior as a function of a person in interaction with an environment—are to be taken seriously. Practice and research that fall short of attending to this person–environment interaction do a disservice to remedial possibilities and personal integrity. We have divided this chapter into two parts. In the first part, we present enlightening concepts together with supporting research. In the second part, we apply the insights gained to clinical practice and research and make specific recommendations regarding each of the issues raised.