Development of a Low Emissions Upgrade Kit for EMD GP20D and GP15D Locomotives

This paper describes the development of a low emissions upgrade kit for EMD GP20D and GP15D locomotives. These locomotives were originally manufactured in 2001, and met EPA Tier 1 locomotive emission regulations. The 1,491 kW (2,000 HP) EMD GP20D locomotives are powered by Caterpillar 3516B engines, and the 1,119 kW (1,500 HP) EMD GP15D locomotives are powered by Caterpillar 3512B engines. CIT Rail owns a fleet of 50 of these locomotives that are approaching their mid-life before first overhaul. Baseline exhaust emissions testing was followed by a low emissions retrofit development focusing on fuel injection timing, crankcase ventilation filtration, and application of a diesel oxidation catalyst (DOC), and then later a diesel particulate filter (DPF). The result was a EPA Tier 0+ certification of the low emissions upgrade kit, with emission levels below EPA Line-Haul Tier 3 NOx, and Tier 4 HC, CO, and PM levels.

Pressure Sensitivity of HCCI Auto-Ignition Temperature for Oxygenated Reference Fuels

The current research focuses on creating an HCCI fuel index suitable for comparing different fuels for HCCI operation. One way to characterize a fuel is to use the Auto-Ignition Temperature (AIT). The AIT can be extracted from the pressure trace. Another potentially interesting parameter is the amount of Low Temperature Heat Release (LTHR) that is closely connected to the ignition properties of the fuel. The purpose of this study was to map the AIT and amount of LTHR of different oxygenated reference fuels in HCCI combustion at different cylinder pressures. Blends of n-heptane, iso-octane and ethanol were tested in a CFR engine with variable compression ratio. Five different inlet air temperatures ranging from 50°C to 150°C were used to achieve different cylinder pressures and the compression ratio was changed accordingly to keep a constant combustion phasing, CA50, of 3±1° after TDC. The experiments were carried out in lean operation with a constant equivalence ratio of 0.33 and with a constant engine speed of 600 rpm. The amount of ethanol needed to suppress LTHR from different PRFs was evaluated. The AIT and the amount of LTHR for different combinations of n-heptane, iso-octane and ethanol were charted.

Estimation of the Occurrence of Micro-Explosion for the Diesel-Biofuel Multi-Components Droplets

A numerical study of micro-explosion in multi-component bio-fuel droplets is presented. The onset of micro-explosion is characterized by the normalized onset radius (NOR). Bubble expansion is described by a modified Rayleigh equation. The final breakup is modeled from a surface energy approach by determining the minimal surface energy (MSE). After the breakup, the Sauter mean radius (SMR) for initially small size droplets can be estimated from a look-up table generated from the current breakup model. There exists an optimal droplet size for the onset of micro-explosion. The MSE approach reaches the same conclusion as previous model determining atomization by aerodynamic disturbances. The SMR of secondary droplets can be estimated by the possible void fraction, ε, at breakup and the corresponding surface Weber number, Wes, at the minimal surface energy ratio (MSER). Biodiesel can enhance micro-explosion in the fuel blends of ethanol and diesel (which is represented by a single composition tetradecane). The simulation results show that the secondary atomization of bio-fuel and diesel blends can be achieved by micro-explosion under typical diesel engine operation conditions.

Influence of Post-Injection Parameters on Soot Formation and Oxidation in a Common-Rail-Diesel Engine Using Multi-Color-Pyrometry

The emission trade-off between soot and NOx is an issue of major concern in automotive diesel applications. Measures need to be taken both on the engine and on the aftertreatment sides in order to optimize the engine emissions while maintaining the highest possible efficiency. It is known that post injections have a potential for exhaust soot reduction without any significant influence in the NOx emissions. However, an accurate and general rule of how to parameterize a post injection such that it provides a maximum reduction of soot emissions does not exist. Moreover, the underlying mechanisms are not understood in detail. The experimental investigation presented here provides insight into the fundamental mechanisms of soot formation and reduction due to post injections under different turbulence and reaction kinetic conditions. In parallel to the measurement of soot elementary carbon in the exhaust (using a Photo Acoustic Soot Sensor), the in-cylinder soot formation and oxidation process have been investigated with an Optical Light Probe (OLP). This sensor provides crank angle resolved information about the in-cylinder soot evolution. The experiments confirm conclusions of earlier works that soot reduction due to a post injection is mainly based on two reasons: increased turbulence (from the post injection) during soot oxidation and lower soot formation due to lower amount of fuel in the main combustion at similar load conditions. A third effect of heat addition during the soot oxidation, which was often mentioned in the literature, could not be confirmed. In addition, the experiments show that variations of turbulence (from swirl) and reaction kinetics have a minor influence on the diffusion controlled heat release rate. However, the time phasing of the soot evolution is highly influenced by these variations with only small changes in the peak soot concentration. It is shown that the soot reduction of a post injection depends on the timing. More precisely, the soot reduction capability of a post injection decreases rapidly as soon as its timing is late in the soot oxidation phase. The soot oxidation rate can only be improved by increased turbulence and heat addition from the post injection in a time window before the in-cylinder soot peak occurs. Depending on EGR and swirl level, a maximum dwell time can be defined after which the post injection effect becomes counterproductive with respect to the soot oxidation rate.

Waste Heat Recovery From Internal Combustion Engines: Feasibility Study on an Organic Rankine Cycle With Application to the Ohio State EcoCAR PHEV

This paper presents a feasibility analysis on the application of Organic Rankine Cycles as a Waste Heat Recovery system for automotive internal combustion engines. The analysis is conducted considering the Ohio State University EcoCAR, a student prototype plug-in hybrid electric vehicle, as a case study for preliminary fuel economy evaluation. Starting from a energy-based powertrain simulation model validated on experimental data from the prototype vehicle, a first and second-law analysis was conducted to identify the potential for engine waste heat recovery, considering a variety of driving cycles and assuming the vehicle operating in charge-sustaining (HEV) mode. Then, a quasi-static thermodynamic model of an Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC) was designed, calibrated from data available in literature and optimized to fit the prototype vehicle. Simulations were then carried out to evaluate the amount of energy recovered by the ORC system, considering both urban and highway driving conditions. The results of the simulations show that a simple ORC system is able to recover up to 10% of the engine waste heat on highway driving conditions, corresponding to a potential 7% improvement in fuel consumption, with low penalization of the added weight to the vehicle electric range.

Application of Continuous Thermodynamics Method to Fuel Droplet Evaporation

A finite diffusion droplet evaporation model for complex liquid mixture composed of different homogeneous groups is presented in this paper. Separate distribution functions are used to describe the composition of each homogeneous group in the mixture. Only a few parameters are required to describe the mixture. Quasi-steady assumption is applied in the determination of evaporation rates and heat flux to the droplet, and the effects of surface regression, finite diffusion and preferential vaporization of the mixture are included in the liquid phase equations using an effective properties approach. A novel approach was used to reduce the transport equations for the liquid phase to a set of ordinary differential equations. The proposed model is capable in capturing the vaporization characteristics of complex liquid mixtures.

Application of a Cartesian-Grid Immersed Boundary Method to 3D In-Cylinder Flow

In this work, a Cartesian-grid immersed boundary method using a cut-cell approach is applied to three-dimensional in-cylinder flow. A hierarchically coupled level-set solver is used to capture the boundary motion by a signed distance function. Topological changes in the geometry due to the opening and closing events of the valves are modeled consistently using multiple signed distance functions for the different components of the engine and taking advantage of a level-set reinitialization method. A continuous discretization of the flow equations in time near the moving interfaces is used to prevent nonphysical oscillations. To ensure an efficient implementation, independent grid adaptation for the flow and the level-set grid is applied. A narrow band approach and an efficient joining/splitting algorithm for the level-set functions minimize the computational overhead to track multiple interfaces. The ability of the current method to handle complex 3D setups is demonstrated for the interface capturing and the flow solution in a three-dimensional piston engine geometry.

Study of Diesel Air-Fuel Mixing and Combustion at High Injection Pressures in a Rapid Compression Machine

Diesel air-fuel mixing and combustion have been investigated in a Rapid Compression Machine (RCM). The measurements were performed at high injection pressures up to 260 MPa and under reacting and non-reacting conditions. The spray was injected through solenoid-controlled multi-hole injectors. Two nozzles were applied with orifice diameters of 175 μm (D175) and 150 μm (D150), respectively. The visualization of the penetration of the liquid and the gaseous phase as well as the spray cone angle under evaporative, non-reacting conditions was carried out by the shadowgraph imaging technique in combination with a high speed camera. For combustion studies the flame luminosity of the flame as well as the chemiluminescence signals emitted by the OH radicals in the UV range were detected. Investigations revealed different behavior of the macroscopic spray characteristics with the two applied nozzles when increasing the injection pressure from 200 MPa to 260 MPa. With the larger nozzle diameter (D175) the spray penetration and the spray propagation velocity increase as the injection pressure is increased. On the contrary to that, with the smaller nozzle diameter (D150) an increase of the injection pressure had no effect on the spray velocity. With 260 MPa a higher spray penetration was only observed at the beginning of the injection due to the faster opening of the needle. The further propagation of the tip of the spray was similar with 200 MPa and 260 MPa. With both applied nozzles the injection pressure has little effect on the penetration length of the liquid phase. At an applied injection pressure of 200 MPa the near-nozzle spray angle is wider with D175, whereas similar spray angles were observed at 260 MPa. From the measurements in reacting atmosphere an earlier ignition of the fuel and a faster combustion could be shown with nozzle D150. In addition, a higher combustion pressure was measured. This can be attributed to better air-fuel mixing and a higher premixed portion, which was confirmed by the analysis of the spray angles in the far-nozzle region obtained from the shadowgraph images at non-reacting conditions.

Jet-Penetration in Prechamber-Ignited Lean Large-Bore Natural Gas Engines

Combustion in lean large-bore natural gas engines is usually initiated by gas-scavenged prechambers. The hot reacting products of the combustion in the prechamber penetrate the main chamber as reacting jets, providing high ignition energy for the lean main chamber charge. The shape and intensity of the reaction zone in these jets are the key elements for efficient ignition and heat release in the main chamber. The influence of geometrical and operational parameters on the reaction during jet penetration was investigated in detail. As the periodically chargeable high pressure combustion cell used in the study provides full optical access to the entire main chamber the evolution of the spatial distribution of the reaction zones was investigated in terms of OH*-chemiluminescence. As jet penetration is a very fast and highly transient process the emission of OH* was recorded at a frequency of f = 30000 Hz. The macroscopic reaction zone parameters in the jet region (penetration length and angle, reacting area and light emission) reveal the influence of orifice size and prechamber gas injection on the heat release in the shear layer between the jet and the lean charge in the main chamber. In addition, the influence of the development of the reaction in these zones on the ignition probability and the main chamber pressure rise is shown. With an appropriate selection of the combination of the prechamber orifice geometry and the operating parameters significant improvements of ignition probability and heat release in the main chamber were obtained.