Corrosion Testing of Armour Wire in Simulated Annulus Environments of Flexible Pipelines: An Update

This paper describes further investigations, utilising small scale test cells, into the general corrosion which can occur on wires within the inherent annulus space in a flexible pipe, particularly, and for the first time, in a sour service (H2S containing) environment. The work enhances data presented previously in 2002. Tests have been performed in cells specifically designed to simulate, as closely as possible, the environment and confines of a flexible pipe annulus, using solutions of both deionized water and seawater (to represent seawater flooding and condensed water). The systems were saturated with CO2 and H2S to simulate permeation of gases through the polymer pressure sheath (as predicted by validated permeation models). Weight loss measurements were undertaken in order to quantify the corrosion rate in these simulated annulus environments and metallography was undertaken to characterise the corrosion and check for HIC/SOHIC.

Refined Model for Inclined Load Capacity of Suction Caissons

Suction caissons used as mooring anchors for offshore structures can, depending on design concept, be subjected to pullout forces ranging from nearly vertical for tension leg platforms, to intermediate inclination angles for taut mooring systems, to nearly horizontal for catenary moored systems. Hence, the ability to understand and predict suction anchor pullout resistance for a full range of load orientations is becoming of increasing importance. A previous paper by the authors presents a plastic limit analysis for estimating the load capacity of suction anchors over a full range of load inclination ranging from horizontal to vertical. The model was capable of predicting load capacity for various load attachment (padeye) depths, caisson aspect ratios, and soil undrained strength profiles that vary linearly with depth. Loading conditions are assumed to be undrained; therefore, a purely cohesive soil is assumed. The original analysis assumed full adhesion on the boundaries of the caisson; i.e., a skin resistance coefficient α equal to unity. However, actual values of this coefficient are less than unity, with specific values varying according to soil conditions and the method of caisson installation. To overcome the limitation of the original model, this paper presents a modified formulation that allows a skin resistance less than unity. The modified formulation develops an interaction relationship between vertical and horizontal soil resistance on the sides of the caisson that is applicable for any skin resistance conditions ranging from no to full adhesion.

High Heat Input Welding of 12Cr-6Ni-2.5Mo Supermartensitic Stainless Steel

In conventional welding of 13% Cr supermartensitic stainless steels, the normal microstructure that forms on cooling is martensite. Although high heat input tends to give a certain coarsening of the final microstructure, the eventual accompanying loss in toughness is not known. The present study was initiated to examine the effect of heat input on weld metal and heat affected zone mechanical properties of a 12Cr-6Ni-2.5Mo grade. The results obtained showed that the notch toughness is low (25 J) and independent of heat input for the weld metal, while it is reduced with increasing heat input for fusion line and the heat affected zone locations. Subsequent post weld heat treatment gave a substantial increase in toughness for all notch locations. Based on these results, indications are that a specified maximum heat input is not applicable in welding of supermartensitic stainless steels, allowing more production efficient techniques to be used, both in longitudinal seam and girth welding.

Vibration of Plate Structures Solved by DQEM Using EDQ

The vibration of plate structures is solved by DQEM using EDQ. In the DQEM discretization, EDQ is used to define the discrete element model. Discrete eigenvalue equations defined at interior discrete points in all elements, transition conditions defined on the inter-element boundary of two adjacent elements and boundary conditions at the structural boundary form the overall discrete eigenvalue equation system. Numerical results obtained by the developed numerical algorithms are presented. They demonstrate the developed numerical solution procedure. This vibration analysis model can be used to solve wide range of offshore engineering structures.

Deformation Measurements on Full-Scale Fracture Tests of Pre-Cracked Tubular Joints

A series of six static strength destructive tests were performed on full-scale pre-cracked tubular welded T-joints manufactured from a high strength weldable steel used in the construction of offshore Jack-Up platforms. All specimens had at least one through-thickness fatigue crack at the weld toe, from a previous fatigue-testing programme. The tests were aimed at analysing the residual static strength of the cracked members. As destructive tests are costly to perform, every effort was made to maximise the data collected. This included the use of a novel photogrammetric technique to provide three-dimensional measurement in real time of the deformation in the vicinity of the brace-chord intersection. The technique has been used for large-scale structural testing in a number of civil and aerospace applications, but to the author’s knowledge this is the first time that it has been employed for the full-scale mechanical testing of large steel structures. This paper describes the details of the photogrammetric technique applied to the large steel specimens which were loaded to failure, resulting in the total separation of the intersecting members. It is hoped that the technique can be used to generate information which can be used in conjunction with finite element or other numerical analyses to increase the accuracy and reliability of modelling cracked tubular joints.

Dynamic Analysis of an Offshore Platform With Excessive Vibration Under Wave Loading

An offshore platform of jacket type in Bohai Bay vibrates excessively under design environmental conditions, which has affected the normal operation of the platform. In order to mitigate the vibration of the platform, it is essential important to explore the cause of the vibration. So the objective of this study is to investigate the cause of the excessive vibration. In this paper, dynamic characteristics of the offshore platform are analyzed by numerical simulation using finite element (FE) modeling. To further verify the numerical results, a model experiment is conducted. Numerical and experimental results demonstrate that there are relative movement and impact between the piles and the jacket, i.e. the piles and the jacket didn’t connect well to an entity. It is this cause that the stiffness of the platform deceases and impact between piles and the jacket legs induce excessive vibration. And also the grouting measure is advised to reduce the vibration of the offshore platform according to the analysis results.

Accounting for Constraint in Probabilistic Fracture Mechanics Analysis of Welds in Floating Production, Storage and Off-Loading (FPSO) Vessels

Revision 4 of the British Energy R6 document: “Assessment of the integrity of structures containing defects” provides methods to allow for loss of crack tip constraint for shallow weld flaws. The document also provides methods to estimate upper-bound values of the through thickness residual stress distribution for a range of common weld joint configurations. The present paper presents results of analyses where approaches to modify the R6 Option 1 or 2 failure assessment diagrams (FADs) for loss of crack tip constraint pertaining to primary and non-uniform residual stress have been applied. The modified FAD were formulated for probabilistic fracture mechanics analyses of semi-elliptical surface cracks located at transverse deck welds of Floating Production, Storage and Off-loading (FPSO) vessels designed to operate in the North Sea. The objective was to study the influence on the failure probability of modifying the FAD for constraint and allowing for non-uniform residual stress. Another objective was to study the influence of constraint correction on the combined fatigue and fracture failure probability for the vessels subjected to wave loading. Material and weld tensile properties and fracture toughness distributions for input to the probabilistic fracture mechanics analyses were obtained from testing of welded panels prepared using welding procedures for actual FPSO fabrication. The loading conditions were derived based on North Sea wave data pertaining to the offshore field where the FPSO is operating. The stresses were obtained from global FE analysis and fitted Weibull long-term and extreme value distributions. The results of the analyses demonstrate clearly the importance of correcting for crack tip constraint pertaining to both primary and secondary stress and to allow for non-uniform residual stress for shallow surface flaws of known crack heights. However, in combination with fatigue crack growth the effects become less prominent as the failure probability is governed by the uncertainty in the parameters of the crack growth relationship and the long-term stress distribution.

Sensitivity of Fatigue Assessment to the Use of Different Reference S-N Curves

The S-N curve based fatigue assessment approach is the most widely used one in both ship and offshore industry, in contrast with a fracture mechanics approach. The S-N approach, implemented by either simplified or spectral method, has to apply S-N curves to calculate fatigue strength. The S-N curve, which represents the number of cycles (N) of a constant amplitude stress range (S) that will cause a fatigue failure, is normally developed based on experimental data. Which S-N curve should be applied to a particular detail depends very much on the geometry of the detail, welding information as well as loading condition. There are various S-N curves published by different institutions, e.g., S-N curves published by UK HSE, IIW, AWS etc. The newly developed ABS “Guidance on Fatigue Assessment of Offshore Structures”, [1], proposes the ABS S-N curves, in which two categories of joints, tubular and non-tubular, are included, and both size and environment effects are taken into account. However, the application in Gulf of Mexico is also influenced by API recommendations. In API RP 2A, AWS S-N curves are referred, which in US practice is accepted for fixed (buoyant and non-buoyant) platform deck structures. The objective of this paper is to address the difference between different S-N curves and to present the detailed results of fatigue assessment by using different S-N curves for non-tubular joints. Conclusions made based on the study provide more background on the S-N curve application in fatigue assessment.

On the Constraint-Based Failure Assessment of Surface Cracks in T-Plate Welded Joints

The loss of crack tip constraint leads to enhanced resistance to both cleavage and ductile tearing. However, conventional failure assessment schemes (CEGB-R6, BS-7910) use lower bound toughness obtained from highly constrained test specimens. Cracks in many real engineering structures are not highly constrained, which makes failure predictions using conventional failure assessment schemes based on lower bound fracture toughness values overly pessimistic. Excessive pessimism in the structural assessment can lead to unwarranted repair or decommissioning of structures, and thus cause unneeded cost and inconvenience. Recent developments on constraint-based fracture mechanics have enabled the practical assessment of defective components including the constraint effect. For example, the recent revision of R6 and the newly developed structural integrity assessment procedures for European industry (SINTAP) have suggested a framework for failure assessments including the constraint effect. In this paper, the constraint-based failure assessment of surface cracked T-plate welded joints under tension load is presented. Different issues including the constraint-based failure assessment diagrams, the treatment of combining primary and the secondary loads, and the calculation of stress intensity factors, limit loads and constraint parameters for surface cracked T-plate joints are discussed. It is demonstrated that when the lower constraint effect is properly accounted for, the maximum allowable tensile stress level increases substantially.

Effect of the Yield to Tensile Ratio, Y/T, on Structural Reliability of Linepipes

The effect of the Yield (Y) to Tensile (T) ratio, Y/T, on the structural reliability of linepipes with longitudinal defects was studied in this work. A model based on elastic-plastic fracture mechanics (EPFM) and plasticity theory, was developed for that purpose. The analysis allows for load or deformation control situations. The results are shown in terms of curves of critical defect size vs. the controlling variable, i.e. load or deformation. For each one of the several materials studied, different cases with different Y/T values were considered. Even for the lower limits of experimental data, i.e. larger Y/T, the materials have adequate defect tolerance.