The Current Bottleneck of Knowledge Management and How Information Technology can be Successfully Used to Reduce it

Knowledge is generated and propogated by cultural selection, a process that—like it genetic counterpart, natural selection—consumes much time and resources in contrasting every new (or mutated) information with reality. However, if we hasten to minimize the field tests or marketing tests—forms of cultural selection—we run into the risk of not testing the knowledge sufficiently and make a deficient contrast with reality. In this chapter we present the concept of pragmatic minimization as the compromise of minimizing the amount of resources invested in contrasting the newly acquired knowledge with reality, while not falling into a lack of realism—blind idealism—or a cominatorial explosion of mental possibilities. Then, we advocate “simulated praxis” and a “more pragmatic artificial intelligence” as new avenues to optimally solve the problem of pragmatic minimization.

Classifying Knowledge Maps

This chapter looks at graphic strategies to reference knowledge and to make it more accessible through interactive knowledge maps. It discusses pragmatic ways of classifying knowledge maps to give an overview of their application contexts and formats. In the chapter, we show where and how the term knowledge map has been previously used and which criteria must be met in a sound and useful knowledge map classification that can support knowledge management processes and strategies. Various classification principles are presented and discussed. A table then matches map formats to knowledge management purposes and knowledge-related contents in order to serve as a selection and organizing framework. Examples of some of the main types of knowledge maps are presented to illustrate the varieties of knowledge mapping present in the classification. The article concludes by discussing its limitations and future research questions in the area of knowledge mapping.

Knowledge-Based Strategies and Systems

Knowledge management strategies and implementation of knowledge-based systems have gained importance over the last decade. However, many organizations are not able to develop “winning” knowledge-based strategies and others waste signifi- cant monies when the knowledge-based systems they invest in fail to produce the desired results. To address the challenges faced by these organizations, a recently developed framework for strategic dilemmas was proposed by Russ, Jones, and Fineman (2006) to aid in the development of knowledge-based (KB) strategies. The framework (C3EEP) identifies six dilemmas that organizations should balance when considering their knowledge management and business strategies. Examples of such dilemmas include the balance between concealment (secrecy) vs. transparency, complementary vs. destroying, and the balance between exploitation and exploration. The framework compliments the six stages in the life cycle of KB systems (KBS) as identified by the academic literature that discusses the development and implementation of KBS from the information systems (IS) perspective (e.g., Lytras, Pouloudi, & Poulymenakou, 2002; Nissen, Kamel, & Sengupta, 2000). This interaction/ linkage between KB strategies and systems is crucial for the success of both. Academic research supports the complex relationship between the two. However, there is no conclusive formula for managing this relationship to achieve success. The purpose of this study will be to identify crossovers between the two streams (strategy and systems) of research by using a systematic literature review. For example, is the academic literature focusing mostly on the learning aspect (late stage in the life cycle) of the exploration strategy while largely ignoring the discussion about attracting the appropriate knowledge (early stage in the life cycle) for this kind of strategy? Or does the academic literature focus on populating a KBS with appropriate complementary knowledge while largely ignoring the dynamics of the transfer of destroying knowledge (learning aspect)? The authors hope to accomplish three goals in this study: (1) to continue the validation of the two (C3EEP and KBS life cycle) frameworks; (2) to identify new research opportunities; and (3) to focus managerial attention on areas of importance in KB strategies and systems that lack depth of academic discussion.

Managing Interorganizational Networks

This chapter introduces the challenges facing interorganizational knowledge management networks. Examples from DuPont, the knowledge management working group of the federal government, as well as the Construction Industry Institute give concrete examples of how these challenges were faced and overcome. The authors hope that their industry experience and years of working in these networks help the readers to apply these principles to their own networks.

A Framework for Introducing Knowledge Management in the Banking Sector

The management of knowledge has become a major research field in different disciplines in the last years. A key issue is the future development of knowledge management as a “fashion” or “trend” initiative. A longitudinal empirical study conducted by the authors analyzing the literature of knowledge management from 1994 until 2004 comes to the conclusion that knowledge management is already transformed into a “trend”. Furthermore, this chapter deals with the integration of knowledge management in the banking sector by applying the building block approach from Probst, Raub & Romhardt. Currently knowledge management is used in an unbalanced manner and not considering all knowledge-intensive processes.

The Hidden Deception of Knowledge Management Systems

Drawing on the Carnegie tradition of bounded rationality, knowledge theory, and research on core rigidities, this research examines the potential unintended consequences of knowledge management systems on organizational routines. Although knowledge management systems promote interpersonal knowledge transfer, individual cognitive biases toward satisficing rather than optimal search are exaggerated by knowledge management systems that create a convenient proximal search environment of existing organizational knowledge that biases individuals against broader search. This behavioral bias toward proximal search then leads to the rigid persistence of organizations in existing knowledge traditions and declining radical innovation. To help address these concerns, the paper concludes with an analysis of how this rigidity can potentially be overcome through the strategic management of knowledge management infrastructure.

Knowledge Engines for Critical Decision Support

Current knowledge capture and retention techniques tend to codify “what-is” and “who knows” more effectively than “how-to”. Unfortunately, “how-to” knowledge is more directly actionable, and indispensable for critical organizational activities such as strategic analysis and decision-making. KM theorists often despair over “how-to” expertise as a form of tacit knowledge that is difficult to articulate, much less transfer. We argue that tacit strategic performance-based knowledge can often be captured and deployed effectively, via frameworks that combine scenario planning methods with “what-if” simulation. The key challenges are two-fold: (1) modeling complex situational contexts, including known behavioral dynamics; and (2) enabling knowledge workers to manipulate such models interactively, to safely practice situational analysis and decision-making and learn from virtual rather real mistakes. We illustrate our approach with example knowledge-based decision support solutions and provide pointers to related literature.

Knowledge Management Strategies for Web 2.0 Integration

This chapter examines the elements of the new Web 2.0 technology base and discusses a framework for implementing into the typical knowledge store. The collaborative environment opens the door to move away from the traditional command and control of information that exists through out the organization to a more collaborative environment based on trust. The rapid growth of information and the advancements in knowledge store technology has created an environment where organizations can expand the value and utility generated by integrating the Web 2.0 technologies. While the definition of web 2.0 varies, the basic idea of user contributed content dynamically alters the lifecycle of knowledge itself. This analysis should present the reader with several different integration techniques including component integration and complete application replacement.

The Intellectual Capital Statements

In light of the latest developments in the field of intellectual capital (IC) measuring and reporting (Asia, Europe, and USA), this chapter aims to help managers measure and report the intellectual capital of their companies. Having first-hand experiences in collaborating with firms in the building of the “intellectual capital report” (ICR)—and therefore knowing weaknesses and major mistakes—the authors of the chapter propose how firms should build the ICR, an innovative corporate report with strategic implications for the achievement and maintenance of a longterm competitive advantage. The first section of the chapter presents a historical review of the development of the intellectual capital report since 1992. The second section analyzes intellectual capital reports, discussing firms’ definition and goals for these reports; the analysis is based on intellectual capital reports published by 38 firms from Europe (Austria, Germany, Iceland, Italy, Spain, Sweden, and UK) and Asia (India and Japan) during the period 1992-2006. From here, we address how firms can get started building the intellectual capital report, especially regarding the structure of the report as well as the specific indicators.

Implementing Communities of Practice to Manage Knowledge and Drive Innovation

A Community of Practice (CoP) unites individuals with shared interests and shared or complementary competencies to interact on a regular basis, advancing communal learning and knowledge. By facilitating increased, relevant interactions between people, CoPs often improve organizational effectiveness. They can be initiated as a performance improvement intervention at the individual, group and organizational levels. After describing the theoretical background of CoPs as discussed in the organizational theory and knowledge management literature, this article classifies the results of research in the knowledge management domain, dating from 1991, into an actionable Plan-Do-Check-Act (PDCA) model. Future trends in CoP development, including e-Science and digital ecosystems, are then discussed.