scholarly journals Impact of Early Life Antibiotic Exposure and Neonatal Hyperoxia on the Murine Microbiome and Lung Injury

2019 ◽  
Vol 9 (1) ◽  
Author(s):  
Melissa H. Althouse ◽  
Christopher Stewart ◽  
Weiwu Jiang ◽  
Bhagavatula Moorthy ◽  
Krithika Lingappan
Keyword(s):  
Lung Injury ◽  
Beta Diversity ◽  
Alpha Diversity ◽  
Intestinal Microbiome ◽  
Rrna Gene ◽  
Antibiotic Exposure ◽  
Neonatal Mice ◽  
Intestinal Dysbiosis ◽  
Neonatal Hyperoxia

Abstract Cross talk between the intestinal microbiome and the lung and its role in lung health remains unknown. Perinatal exposure to antibiotics disrupts the neonatal microbiome and may have an impact on the preterm lung. We hypothesized that perinatal antibiotic exposure leads to long-term intestinal dysbiosis and increased alveolar simplification in a murine hyperoxia model. Pregnant C57BL/6 wild type dams and neonatal mice were treated with antibiotics before and/or immediately after delivery. Control mice received phosphate-buffered saline (PBS). Neonatal mice were exposed to 95% oxygen for 4 days or room air. Microbiome analysis was performed using 16S rRNA gene sequencing. Pulmonary alveolarization and vascularization were analyzed at postnatal day (PND) 21. Perinatal antibiotic exposure modified intestinal beta diversity but not alpha diversity in neonatal mice. Neonatal hyperoxia exposure altered intestinal beta diversity and relative abundance of commensal bacteria in antibiotic treated mice. Hyperoxia disrupted pulmonary alveolarization and vascularization at PND 21; however, there were no differences in the degree of lung injury in antibiotic treated mice compared to vehicle treated controls. Our study suggests that exposure to both hyperoxia and antibiotics early in life may cause long-term alterations in the intestinal microbiome, but intestinal dysbiosis may not significantly influence neonatal hyperoxic lung injury.

scholarly journals Effect of Bovine MFGM and LF in Infant Formula on Gut Microbiome and Metabolome at Four Months of Age

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
Maciej Chichlowski ◽  
Nicholas Bokulich ◽  
Cheryl L Harris ◽  
Jennifer L Wampler ◽  
Fei Li ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Infant Formula ◽  
Beta Diversity ◽  
Milk Fat ◽  
Alpha Diversity ◽  
Illumina Miseq ◽  
Rrna Gene ◽  
Term Infants ◽  
Linear Discriminant ◽  
Alpha And Beta Diversity ◽  
Metabolite Profiles

Abstract Background Milk fat globule membrane (MFGM) and lactoferrin (LF) are human milk bioactive components demonstrated to support gastrointestinal (GI) and immune development. Significantly fewer diarrhea and respiratory-associated adverse events through 18 months of age were previously reported in healthy term infants fed a cow's milk-based infant formula with added source of bovine MFGM and bovine LF through 12 months of age. Objectives To compare microbiota and metabolite profiles in a subset of study participants. Methods Stool samples were collected at Baseline (10–14 days of age) and Day 120 (MFGM + LF: 26, Control: 33). Bacterial community profiling was performed via16S rRNA gene sequencing (Illumina MiSeq) and alpha and beta diversity were analyzed (QIIME 2). Differentially abundant taxa were determined using Linear discriminant analysis effect size (LefSE) and visualized (Metacoder). Untargeted stool metabolites were analyzed (HPLC/mass spectroscopy) and expressed as the fold-change between group means (Control: MFGM + LF ratio). Results Alpha diversity increased significantly in both groups from baseline to 4 months. Subtle group differences in beta diversity were demonstrated at 4 months (Jaccard distance; R2 = 0.01, P = 0.042). Specifically, Bacteroides uniformis and Bacteroides plebeius were more abundant in the MFGM + LF group at 4 months. Metabolite profile differences for MFGM + LF vs Control included: lower fecal medium chain fatty acids, deoxycarnitine, and glycochenodeoxycholate, and some higher fecal carbohydrates and steroids (P < 0.05). After applying multiple test correction, the differences in stool metabolomics were not significant. Conclusions Addition of bovine MFGM and LF in infant formula was associated with subtle differences in stool microbiome and metabolome by four months of age, including increased prevalence of Bacteroides species. Stool metabolite profiles may be consistent with altered microbial metabolism. Trial registration:  https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT02274883).

scholarly journals Gut Microbiome in Psoriasis: An Updated Review

Pathogens ◽  
2020 ◽  
Vol 9 (6) ◽  
pp. 463
Author(s):  
Mariusz Sikora ◽  
Albert Stec ◽  
Magdalena Chrabaszcz ◽  
Aleksandra Knot ◽  
Anna Waskiel-Burnat ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Gut Microbiome ◽  
Beta Diversity ◽  
Large Scale ◽  
Skin Diseases ◽  
Intestinal Barrier ◽  
Alpha Diversity ◽  
Current Data ◽  
Intestinal Microbiome ◽  
Microbial Composition ◽  
Alpha And Beta Diversity

(1) Background: A growing body of evidence highlights that intestinal dysbiosis is associated with the development of psoriasis. The gut–skin axis is the novel concept of the interaction between skin diseases and microbiome through inflammatory mediators, metabolites and the intestinal barrier. The objective of this study was to synthesize current data on the gut microbial composition in psoriasis. (2) Methods: We conducted a systematic review of studies investigating intestinal microbiome in psoriasis, using the PRISMA checklist. We searched MEDLINE, EMBASE, and Web of Science databases for relevant published articles (2000–2020). (3) Results: All of the 10 retrieved studies reported alterations in the gut microbiome in patients with psoriasis. Eight studies assessed alpha- and beta-diversity. Four of them reported a lack of change in alpha-diversity, but all confirmed significant changes in beta-diversity. At the phylum-level, at least two or more studies reported a lower relative abundance of Bacteroidetes, and higher Firmicutes in psoriasis patients versus healthy controls. (4) Conclusions: There is a significant association between alterations in gut microbial composition and psoriasis; however, there is high heterogeneity between studies. More unified methodological standards in large-scale studies are needed to understand microbiota’s contribution to psoriasis pathogenesis and its modulation as a potential therapeutic strategy.

scholarly journals AB1232 ORAL DYSBIOSIS REFLECTS THE IMMUNOLOGICAL ALTERATION OF RA REGARDING TO ACPA AND HLA DRB1*SE: NAGASAKI ISLAND STUDY

2020 ◽  
Vol 79 (Suppl 1) ◽  
pp. 1907.2-1907
Author(s):  
Y. Tsuji ◽  
M. Tamai ◽  
S. Morimoto ◽  
D. Sasaki ◽  
M. Nagayoshi ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Beta Diversity ◽  
Healthy Subjects ◽  
Microbial Community Composition ◽  
Alpha Diversity ◽  
Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay ◽  
Rrna Gene ◽  
Oral Microbiota ◽  
Unifrac Distance ◽  
Alpha And Beta Diversity ◽  
The Difference

Background:Anti-citrullinated protein antibody (ACPA) production is observed in several organs even prior to the onset of rheumatoid arthritis (RA), and oral mucosa is considered to be one of the important tissues. The presence of HLA-DRB1*SE closely associates with ACPA production. Saliva is considered to reflect the oral microbiota including periodontal disease. Alteration of oral microbiota of RA becomes to be normalized by DMARDs treatment, however, the interaction of HLA-DRB1*SE, ACPA and oral microbiota of RA patients remains to be elucidated.Objectives:The Nagasaki Island Study, which had started in 2014 collaborating with Goto City, is intended for research of the preclinical stage of RA, including ACPA/HLA genotype screening and ultrasound and magnetic resonance imaging examinations in high-risk subjects. Using the samples accumulated in this cohort, we have tried to investigate the difference of oral microbiota among RA patients and healthy subjects regarding to ACPA and HLA-DRB1*SE.Methods:Blood and salivary samples were obtained from 1422 subjects out of 4276 who have participated in the Nagasaki Island Study from 2016 to 2018. ACPA positivity was 1.7 % in total. Some of RA patients resided in Goto City participated in the Nagasaki Island Study. At this point, we selected 291 subjects, who were ACPA positive non-RA healthy subjects (n=22) and patients with RA (n=33, 11 subjects were ACPA positive and 22 ACPA negative respectively) as the case, age and gender matched ACPA negative non-RA healthy subjects (n=236) as the control. ACPA was measured by an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, and HLA genotyping was quantified by next-generation sequencing (Ref.1). The operational taxonomic unit (OUT) analysis using 16S rRNA gene sequencing were performed. The richness of microbial diversity within-subject (alpha diversity) was scaled via Shannon entropy. The dissimilarity between microbial community composition was calculated using Bray-Curtis distance as a scale, and differences between groups (beta diversity) were tested by permutational multivariate analysis of variance (PERMANOVA). In addition, UniFrac distance calculated in consideration of the distance on the phylogenetic tree were performed.Results:Median age 70 y.o., % Female 58.8 %. Among RA and non-RA subjects, not alpha diversity but beta diversity was statistically significance (p=0.022, small in RA). In RA subjects, both alpha and beta diversity is small (p<0.0001), especially significant in ACPA positive RA (Figure 1). Amongt RA subjects, presence of HLA-DRB1*SE did not show the difference but the tendency of being small of alpha diversity (p=0.29).Conclusion:Our study has suggested for the first time the association of oral microbiota alteration with the presence of ACPA and HLA-DRB1*SE. Oral dysbiosis may reflect the immunological status of patients with RA.References:[1]Kawaguchi S, et al. Methods Mol Biol 2018;1802: 22Disclosure of Interests:None declared

scholarly journals Association of Broiler Litter Microbiome Composition and Campylobacter Isolation

2021 ◽  
Vol 8 ◽  
Author(s):  
Robert Valeris-Chacin ◽  
Maria Pieters ◽  
Haejin Hwang ◽  
Timothy J. Johnson ◽  
Randall S. Singer
Keyword(s):  
Beta Diversity ◽  
Conditional Logistic Regression ◽  
Statistical Significance ◽  
Alpha Diversity ◽  
Rrna Gene ◽  
Campylobacter Coli ◽  
Broiler Litter ◽  
Logistic Regression Models ◽  
Microbiome Composition ◽  
Broiler House

Infection with Campylobacter species is one of the leading causes of bacterial diarrhea in humans in the US. Chickens, which become colonized on the farm, are important reservoirs of this bacterium. Campylobacter can establish itself in the broiler house via a variety of sources, can survive in the litter of the house, and possibly persist over successive flock cycles. However, the role of the broiler litter microbiome on Campylobacter persistence is not clear. A matched case-control study was conducted to determine whether the broiler litter microbiome composition was associated with Campylobacter isolation within the broiler house. Flocks were classified as cases when either Campylobacter jejuni or Campylobacter coli was isolated in boot sock samples, or as controls otherwise. Case and control flocks were matched at the broiler house level. Composite broiler litter samples were collected and used for DNA extraction and 16S rRNA gene V4 region sequencing. Reads were processed using the DADA2 pipeline to obtain a table of amplicon sequence variants. Alpha diversity and differential bacterial relative abundance were used as predictors of Campylobacter isolation status in conditional logistic regression models adjusting for flock age and sampling season. Beta diversity distances were used as regressors in stratified PERMANOVA with Campylobacter isolation status as predictor, and broiler house as stratum. When Campylobacter was isolated in boot socks, broiler litter microbiome richness and evenness were lower and higher, respectively, without reaching statistical significance. Campylobacter isolation status significantly explained a small proportion of the beta diversity (genus-level Aitchison dissimilarity distance). Clostridium and Anaerostipes were positively associated with Campylobacter isolation status, whereas Bifidobacterium, Anaerosporobacter, and Stenotrophomonas were negatively associated. Our results suggest the presence of bacterial interactions between Campylobacter and the broiler litter microbiome. The negative association of Campylobacter with Bifidobacterium, Anaerosporobacter, and Stenotrophomonas in litter could be potentially exploited as a pre-harvest control strategy.

scholarly journals Gut microbiota composition is associated with narcolepsy type 1

2020 ◽  
Vol 7 (6) ◽  
pp. e896
Author(s):  
Alexandre Lecomte ◽  
Lucie Barateau ◽  
Pedro Pereira ◽  
Lars Paulin ◽  
Petri Auvinen ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Community Structure ◽  
Gut Microbiota ◽  
Bacterial Communities ◽  
Beta Diversity ◽  
Alpha Diversity ◽  
Amplicon Sequencing ◽  
Rrna Gene ◽  
Differential Abundance ◽  
Alpha And Beta Diversity

ObjectiveTo test the hypothesis that narcolepsy type 1 (NT1) is related to the gut microbiota, we compared the microbiota bacterial communities of patients with NT1 and control subjects.MethodsThirty-five patients with NT1 (51.43% women, mean age 38.29 ± 19.98 years) and 41 controls (57.14% women, mean age 36.14 ± 12.68 years) were included. Stool samples were collected, and the fecal microbiota bacterial communities were compared between patients and controls using the well-standardized 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing approach. We studied alpha and beta diversity and differential abundance analysis between patients and controls, and between subgroups of patients with NT1.ResultsWe found no between-group differences for alpha diversity, but we discovered in NT1 a link with NT1 disease duration. We highlighted differences in the global bacterial community structure as assessed by beta diversity metrics even after adjustments for potential confounders as body mass index (BMI), often increased in NT1. Our results revealed differential abundance of several operational taxonomic units within Bacteroidetes, Bacteroides, and Flavonifractor between patients and controls, but not after adjusting for BMI.ConclusionWe provide evidence of gut microbial community structure alterations in NT1. However, further larger and longitudinal multiomics studies are required to replicate and elucidate the relationship between the gut microbiota, immunity dysregulation and NT1.

scholarly journals Dorsal Skin Microbial Assemblages in Free-ranging Hellbenders, Cryptobranchus Alleganiensis, Associated With Subspecies and Chronic Toe Lesions, but Not With Chytrid Fungal Infection.

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
Rebecca Hale Hardman ◽  
Gary LeCleir ◽  
Benjamin Fitzpatrick ◽  
Kelly J. Irwin ◽  
William B. Sutton ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Beta Diversity ◽  
Life Stage ◽  
Alpha Diversity ◽  
Unknown Etiology ◽  
Rrna Gene ◽  
Infection Status ◽  
Dorsal Skin ◽  
Cryptobranchus Alleganiensis ◽  
Hill Number ◽  
Lesion Severity

Abstract BackgroundSkin microbiomes are important components of skin health and have been shown to contribute to immunity in amphibians, especially against the chytrid fungus, Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd). Hellbenders (Cryptobranchus alleganiensis) are large aquatic amphibians (Order Caudata) native to the eastern United States that have experienced population declines of both the Ozark and eastern subspecies, C. a. bishopi and C. a. alleganiensis, respectively. In addition, ulcerative non-healing toe lesions have become increasingly prevalent in C. a. bishopi, in Arkansas (AR) where populations are now reduced to a single river. To evaluate the potential impacts of both chronic toe lesions and Bd on hellbender health, we compared dorsal skin microbial assemblages based on 16S rRNA gene amplicons between a declining Ozark hellbender population in Arkansas (AR) presenting lesions and a reference, recruiting, lesion-free, population of eastern hellbenders in eastern Tennessee (ETN). We further evaluated effects of mass and life stage across both subspecies, as well as toe lesion severity and Bd infection status within AR, to better understand the associations between microbiomes and disease in a wild salamander.ResultsWe found skin of ETN hellbenders to have greater bacterial alpha diversity compared to AR, with this disparity decreasing as Hill number order increased. Conversely, within AR, animals with more severe lesions had decreased alpha diversity than those with mild lesions, which became more pronounced with increasing Hill number. Further, the average microbial assemblage structure differed between ETN and AR. Specifically, AR communities displayed increased beta diversity compared to those from ETN, which appeared to be linked to toe lesion severity. Neither size class (mass) nor Bd infection status had a significant effect on alpha or beta diversity. Taxonomic analysis revealed ETN to have greater OTU abundance of phylum Cyanobacteria 24.3%) compared to AR (5.9%); whereas AR had increased abundance of Proteobacteria (48.5%), Firmicutes (9.1%), and Synergistetes (1.5%), in comparison to ETN (31.5%, 2.6%, 0.2%, respectively).ConclusionsResults demonstrate that eastern hellbenders of ETN have richer and less dispersed dorsal skin bacterial assemblages compared to Ozark hellbenders of AR. Furthermore, we suggest that increased severity of toe lesions may be linked to systemic changes resulting in skin microbial dysbiosis, independent of Bd infection. Although lesions remain to have an unknown etiology, this study is another step towards understanding skin bacterial microbiomes in hellbenders, and their potential associations with chronic disease.

scholarly journals Effect of a Nutritional Intervention on the Intestinal Microbiota of Vertically HIV-Infected Children: The Pediabiota Study

Nutrients ◽  
2020 ◽  
Vol 12 (7) ◽  
pp. 2112
Author(s):  
Talía Sainz ◽  
María José Gosalbes ◽  
Alba Talavera ◽  
Nuria Jimenez-Hernandez ◽  
Luis Prieto ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Gut Microbiota ◽  
Alpha Diversity ◽  
Nutritional Intervention ◽  
Fecal Microbiota ◽  
Controlled Study ◽  
Control Group ◽  
Rrna Gene ◽  
Double Blind ◽  
Human Virus ◽  
Intestinal Dysbiosis

Aims: The gut microbiota exerts a critical influence in the immune system. The gut microbiota of human virus immunodeficiency (HIV)-infected children remains barely explored. We aimed to characterize the fecal microbiota in vertically HIV-infected children and to explore the effects of its modulation with a symbiotic nutritional intervention. Methods: a pilot, double blind, randomized placebo-controlled study including HIV-infected children who were randomized to receive a nutritional supplementation including prebiotics and probiotics or placebo for four weeks. HIV-uninfected siblings were recruited as controls. The V3–V4 region of the 16S rRNA gene was sequenced in fecal samples. Results: 22 HIV-infected children on antiretroviral therapy (ART) and with viral load (VL) <50/mL completed the follow-up period. Mean age was 11.4 ± 3.4 years, eight (32%) were male. Their microbiota showed reduced alpha diversity compared to controls and distinct beta diversity at the genus level (Adonis p = 0.042). Patients showed decreased abundance of commensals Faecalibacterium and an increase in Prevotella, Akkermansia and Escherichia. The nutritional intervention shaped the microbiota towards the control group, without a clear directionality. Conclusions: Vertical HIV infection is characterized by changes in gut microbiota structure, distinct at the compositional level from the findings reported in adults. A short nutritional intervention attenuated bacterial dysbiosis, without clear changes at the community level. Summary: In a group of 24 vertically HIV-infected children, in comparison to 11 uninfected controls, intestinal dysbiosis was observed despite effective ART. Although not fully effective to restore the microbiota, a short intervention with pre/probiotics attenuated bacterial dysbiosis.

Antibiotic treatment in infants: effect on the gastro-intestinal microbiome and long term consequences

2018 ◽  
Vol 2 (1) ◽  
pp. 15 ◽  
Author(s):  
Linde Peeters ◽  
Siel Daelemans ◽  
Yvan Vandenplas
Keyword(s):  
Young Children ◽  
Intestinal Microbiome ◽  
Antibiotic Administration ◽  
Gastrointestinal Microbiome ◽  
Intestinal Dysbiosis ◽  
Pros And Cons ◽  
Inflammatory Bowel ◽  
Antibiotic Associated Diarrhoea ◽  
Infants And Young Children

The gastrointestinal microbiome is crucial for the development of a balanced immune system. Antibiotics are frequently administered to infants and cause intestinal dysbiosis. This narrative review highlights the long term health consequences of antibiotic administration to infants and young children. The necessity of administration of antibiotics should be well considered, since an association with short term consequences such as antibiotic associated diarrhoea and long term adverse effects such as overweight, inflammatory bowel syndrome, allergic disease  have been reported.  Conclusion:  The pros and cons of antibiotic administration to infants and young children should be considered.

244 MICROBIOME ANALYSIS OF UPPER DIGESTIVE TRACT BIOPSY SAMPLES FROM INDIVIDUALS ALONG THE METAPLASIA-DYSPLASIA-ADENOCARCINOMA SEQUENCE.

2021 ◽  
Vol 34 (Supplement_1) ◽  
Author(s):  
Jessie Elliott ◽  
Jessie Elliott ◽  
Collette Hand ◽  
Fergus Shanahan ◽  
Thomas Murphy ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Gastric Cancer ◽  
Digestive Tract ◽  
Beta Diversity ◽  
Alpha Diversity ◽  
Oesophageal Adenocarcinoma ◽  
Rrna Gene ◽  
Significant Shift ◽  
Clinical Classification ◽  
Upper Digestive Tract ◽  
Normal Oesophagus

Abstract   The human microbiota, the collection of microbes that inhabit the human body, is increasingly being appreciated as playing a role in human health. A seminal example of this relationship is Helicobacter pylori and gastric cancer oncogenesis. The drop in H.pylori infections and non-cardia gastric cancer incidences has coincided with the rise in oesophageal adenocarcinoma (OAC) incidences. We sought to explore the relationship between the upper digestive tract microbiome and OAC oncogenesis. Methods Pinch biopsies were taken from individual’s oesophagus and stomach who were along the metaplasia-dysplasia-adenocarcinoma sequence (GERD, Barrett's oesophagus, dysplasia, OAC, metastatic OAC) as well as healthy controls. We carried out 16 s rRNA gene DNA sequencing protocols on these samples. DNA extraction and library preparation was performed with consideration to the low mass nature of oesophageal biopsies. Raw reads were processed and amplicon sequence variants (ASVs) were generated using the DADA2. We dissected ecological differences between sample site and clinical classification using a variety of approaches including examining differentially abundant taxa and inferred metabolic pathways, alpha diversity and beta-diversity. Results The upper digestive tract was found to be dominated by the genera Streptococcus, Prevotella, and Haemophilus. There was no statistically significant shift in beta diversity with respect to biopsy location. Alpha diversity was reduced in gastric biopsies compare to oesophageal biopsies. A slight yet significant shift was seen in beta diversity (Bray–Curtis Dissimilarity) with respect to clinical classification in biopsies derived from the gastroesophageal junction (GEJ) and stomach. Various taxa were found to be differentially abundant between biopsy site and with regard to clinical classification. Conclusion OAC primarily occurs at the GEJ. Community structure was shifted in samples derived from the GEJ and the stomach. Fusobacterium nucleatum was overrepresented in oesophageal biopsies from individuals with diseased oesophagus compared to individuals with a histologically normal oesophagus. This bacterium has been implicated in oncogenesis of various cancers most notably colorectal cancer. Serval ASVs assigned to the genus Prevotella were depleted in stomachs of individuals with metastatic OAC compared to all other groups.

scholarly journals Effects of tobacco smoke and electronic cigarette vapor exposure on the oral and gut microbiota in humans: a pilot study

PeerJ ◽  
2018 ◽  
Vol 6 ◽  
pp. e4693 ◽  
Author(s):  
Christopher J. Stewart ◽  
Thomas A. Auchtung ◽  
Nadim J. Ajami ◽  
Kenia Velasquez ◽  
Daniel P. Smith ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Pilot Study ◽  
Gut Microbiota ◽  
Tobacco Smoking ◽  
Electronic Cigarettes ◽  
Alpha Diversity ◽  
Rrna Gene ◽  
Cross Sectional ◽  
Buccal Swabs ◽  
Significant Difference

BackgroundThe use of electronic cigarettes (ECs) has increased drastically over the past five years, primarily as an alternative to smoking tobacco cigarettes. However, the adverse effects of acute and long-term use of ECs on the microbiota have not been explored. In this pilot study, we sought to determine if ECs or tobacco smoking alter the oral and gut microbiota in comparison to non-smoking controls.MethodsWe examined a human cohort consisting of 30 individuals: 10 EC users, 10 tobacco smokers, and 10 controls. We collected cross-sectional fecal, buccal swabs, and saliva samples from each participant. All samples underwent V4 16S rRNA gene sequencing.ResultsTobacco smoking had a significant effect on the bacterial profiles in all sample types when compared to controls, and in feces and buccal swabs when compared to EC users. The most significant associations were found in the gut, with an increased relative abundance ofPrevotella(P= 0.006) and decreasedBacteroides(P= 0.036) in tobacco smokers. The Shannon diversity was also significantly reduced (P= 0.009) in fecal samples collected from tobacco smokers compared to controls. No significant difference was found in the alpha diversity, beta-diversity or taxonomic relative abundances between EC users and controls.DiscussionFrom a microbial ecology perspective, the current pilot data demonstrate that the use of ECs may represent a safer alternative compared to tobacco smoking. However, validation in larger cohorts and greater understanding of the short and long-term impact of EC use on microbiota composition and function is warranted.

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