Women in Cameroon

2020 ◽  
Author(s):  
Harmony O'Rourke
Keyword(s):  
Religious Conversion ◽  
Central Africa ◽  
Cooperative Groups ◽  
Women's Labor ◽  
Long Distance ◽  
Secret Societies ◽  
Marriage And Family ◽  
Women's Relationships ◽  
The 19Th Century ◽  
Queen Mothers

Cameroon is a nation-state in West Central Africa. Historical evidence about the precolonial period has revealed the diverse ways women valued their motherhood and fertility, knowledge of agriculture production, membership in secret societies, and their role in transitioning deceased women and men through dance and ritual. Women exercised varying levels of power and experienced a spectrum of belonging as wives, mothers, concubines, slaves, queen mothers, and political intermediaries. Near the turn of the 19th century, political centralization and the expansion of long-distance trade produced new forms of inequality for women as wealth became more concentrated in the hands of elite men who sought to control women’s labor and sexuality. With colonial rule and postcolonial nationhood in the 20th century, Cameroonian women were increasingly integrated into a capitalist political economy that supported local patriarchal authority, changed women’s relationships to land, and engendered new socioeconomic inequalities. At the same time, women worked to check gendered disempowerment through secret societies, cooperative groups, schooling, religious conversion, changes in marriage and family structure, entrepreneurship, and new avenues for political engagement. In so doing, Cameroonian women transformed gender roles, struggled against new forms of discrimination, and altered lines of difference among themselves.

scholarly journals Differential Tropism in Roots and Shoots of Resistant and Susceptible Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) Infected by Cassava Brown Streak Viruses

Cells ◽  
2021 ◽  
Vol 10 (5) ◽  
pp. 1221
Author(s):  
Samar Sheat ◽  
Paolo Margaria ◽  
Stephan Winter
Keyword(s):  
Virus Replication ◽  
Central Africa ◽  
Streak Virus ◽  
Virus Infections ◽  
Long Distance ◽  
Manihot Esculenta Crantz ◽  
Cassava Brown Streak Virus ◽  
Cassava Brown Streak Disease ◽  
Long Distance Movement ◽  
Brown Streak

Cassava brown streak disease (CBSD) is a destructive disease of cassava in Eastern and Central Africa. Because there was no source of resistance in African varieties to provide complete protection against the viruses causing the disease, we searched in South American germplasm and identified cassava lines that did not become infected with the cassava brown streak viruses. These findings motivated further investigations into the mechanism of virus resistance. We used RNAscope® in situ hybridization to localize cassava brown streak virus in cassava germplasm lines that were highly resistant (DSC 167, immune) or that restricted virus infections to stems and roots only (DSC 260). We show that the resistance in those lines is not a restriction of long-distance movement but due to preventing virus unloading from the phloem into parenchyma cells for replication, thus restricting the virus to the phloem cells only. When DSC 167 and DSC 260 were compared for virus invasion, only a low CBSV signal was found in phloem tissue of DSC 167, indicating that there is no replication in this host, while the presence of intense hybridization signals in the phloem of DSC 260 provided evidence for virus replication in companion cells. In neither of the two lines studied was there evidence of virus replication outside the phloem tissues. Thus, we conclude that in resistant cassava lines, CBSV is confined to the phloem tissues only, in which virus replication can still take place or is arrested.

Multinational Enterprises and the Globalization of Medicine: Siemens and the Business of X-ray Equipment in Non-Western Markets, 1900–1939

2014 ◽  
Vol 15 (4) ◽  
pp. 820-848
Author(s):  
Pierre-Yves Donzé
Keyword(s):  
International Organizations ◽  
Multinational Enterprises ◽  
Large Scale ◽  
Multinational Enterprise ◽  
Central Africa ◽  
Great Difficulty ◽  
X Ray ◽  
Hospital Development ◽  
Slight Growth ◽  
The 19Th Century

Whereas the globalization of medicine since the middle of the 19th century has primarily been approached as the sociopolitical and cultural outcome of imperialism, this article argues that Western big business also played a major role through the worldwide export of standardized medical technologies. It focuses on the expansion of Siemens on the X-ray equipment market in non-Western countries during the first half of the twentieth century. This German multinational enterprise experienced slight growth from the mid-1920s onwards but relied mainly on two markets (Argentina and Brazil). It specialized in providing large-scale equipment to a few urban hospitals and engaged during the 1930s in large-scale hospital development together with local authorities and international organizations in various countries (China, Peru, and Central Africa). However, Siemens had great difficulty in expanding its business to include private doctors and inland outlets, where it faced intense competition from other Western X-ray producers. This paper emphasizes that this shortcoming stemmed from a direct application of the European strategy (high-quality, expensive equipment for hospitals) to non-Western markets, where health systems differed.

Early trade and raw materials in South Central Africa

1969 ◽  
Vol 10 (1) ◽  
pp. 1-13 ◽  
Author(s):  
Brian M. Fagan
Keyword(s):  
Iron Age ◽  
Raw Materials ◽  
Central Africa ◽  
Future Research ◽  
Long Distance ◽  
Regional Trade ◽  
Archaeological Evidence ◽  
South Central ◽  
Iron Copper

Three raw materials were essential to Iron Age peoples in South Central Africa: iron, copper and salt. This paper discusses some of the archaeological evidence for the development of regional and long-distance trade in these commodities during the earlier Iron Age. A distinction is drawn between regional trade in items for which there is local demand, and longer distance commerce in raw materials, which may have been conducted with the aid of some standardized units of monetary significance.The big question for future research is that of assessing the degree to which the more sophisticated centres of metallurgy and trade affected those societies, living outside the immediate area, whose technologies and economies were less highly developed.

scholarly journals Marriage andfamily in the culture of the Russian peasantry of the Western Siberia in the second half of the XIX century

2021 ◽  
Vol 13 (3) ◽  
Author(s):  
I.S. Ivanchenko ◽  
Keyword(s):  
Family Relations ◽  
Marriage And Family ◽  
Role Of The State ◽  
Peasant Society ◽  
Reform Period ◽  
Multigenerational Family ◽  
European Part Of Russia ◽  
Family And Marriage ◽  
Xix Century ◽  
The 19Th Century

The purpose of the research is to trace the evolution of family and marriage relations of the Russian peasantry of the Tobolsk province, which took place in the second half of the 19th century and was influenced by Russian reforms and modernization. The article analyzes the changes that began during this period in the institutions of family and marriage, and also considers new forms of family and marriage relations that began to appear in the peasant society. The preconditions and reasons for the weakening of the institution of the family, divorces in peasant families have been analyzed, the factors of the formation of new forms of marriage and living in fornication have been considered. The role of the state in solving family problems of the peasantry as a whole during the reform period has been investigated. As a result of the research, it has been shown that as a result of the reforms and the subsequent changes in the life of the peasant population of the Tobolsk province, the influx of migrant peasants from the European part of Russia to the region, the construction of the Trans-Siberian railway and other transformations, the form of marriage and family relations among peasants changed, new types of marriage appeared, number of divorces and unmarried women increased. The scientific novelty of the research lies in the formulation of conclusions about the crisis in the post-reform period of the patriarchal model of the multigenerational family among the Russian peasantry of the Tobolsk province (as in the rest of Russia), the spread of small family forms, the growth in the number of divorces, various models of fornication, etc.

scholarly journals Contrasting genetic signal of recolonization after rainforest fragmentation in African trees with different dispersal abilities

2021 ◽  
Vol 118 (27) ◽  
pp. e2013979118
Author(s):  
Rosalía Piñeiro ◽  
Olivier J. Hardy ◽  
Carolina Tovar ◽  
Shyam Gopalakrishnan ◽  
Filipe Garrett Vieira ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Seed Dispersal ◽  
Forest Fragmentation ◽  
Tree Species ◽  
Forest Cover ◽  
Phylogenetic Analyses ◽  
Central Africa ◽  
Ice Age ◽  
Genetic Admixture ◽  
Demographic Model ◽  
Long Distance

Although today the forest cover is continuous in Central Africa, this may have not always been the case, as the scarce fossil record in this region suggests that arid conditions might have significantly reduced tree density during the ice ages. Our aim was to investigate whether the dry ice age periods left a genetic signature on tree species that can be used to infer the date of the past fragmentation of the rainforest. We sequenced reduced representation libraries of 182 samples representing five widespread legume trees and seven outgroups. Phylogenetic analyses identified an early divergent lineage for all species in West Africa (Upper Guinea) and two clades in Central Africa: Lower Guinea-North and Lower Guinea-South. As the structure separating the Northern and Southern clades—congruent across species—cannot be explained by geographic barriers, we tested other hypotheses with demographic model testing using δαδι. The best estimates indicate that the two clades split between the Upper Pliocene and the Pleistocene, a date compatible with forest fragmentation driven by ice age climatic oscillations. Furthermore, we found remarkably older split dates for the shade-tolerant tree species with nonassisted seed dispersal than for light-demanding species with long-distance wind-dispersed seeds. Different recolonization abilities after recurrent cycles of forest fragmentation seem to explain why species with long-distance dispersal show more recent genetic admixture between the two clades than species with limited seed dispersal. Despite their old history, our results depict the African rainforests as a dynamic biome where tree species have expanded relatively recently after the last glaciation.

Women, Gender, and the Economies of Colonial North America

2020 ◽  
Author(s):  
Ellen Hartigan-O'Connor
Keyword(s):  
North America ◽  
18Th Century ◽  
Women's Labor ◽  
Long Distance ◽  
Transatlantic Slave Trade ◽  
Material Basis ◽  
Economic Production ◽  
The Caribbean ◽  
Increasing Demand ◽  
Gender System

North American women were at the center of trade, exchange, economic production, and reproduction, from early encounters in the 16th century through the development of colonies, confederations, and nations by the end of the 18th century. They worked for the daily survival of their communities; they provided the material basis for economic and political expansion. There were no economies without them and no economy existed outside of a gender system that shaped and supported it. Connections of family, household, and community embedded the market economies in each region of North America. Gender acted through credit networks, control over others’ labor, and legal patterns of property ownership. Colonialism, by which Europeans sought to acquire land, extract resources, grow profitable crops, and create a base of consumers for European manufactured goods, transformed local and transatlantic economies. Women’s labor in agriculture, trade, and reproduction changed in the context of expanding international economies, created by the transatlantic slave trade, new financial tools for long-distance investment, and an increasing demand for tropical groceries (tea, coffee, and sugar) and dry goods. Women adjusted their work to earn the money or goods that allowed them to participate in these circuits of exchange. Captive women themselves became exchangeable goods. By the end of the 18th century, people living across North America and the Caribbean had adopted revised and blended ideas about gender and commerce. Some came to redefine the economy itself as a force operating independently of women’s daily subsistence, a symbolic realm that divided as much as connected people.

First Direct Radiocarbon Dating of the Lower Congo Rock Art (Democratic Republic of the Congo)

Radiocarbon ◽  
2013 ◽  
Vol 55 (3) ◽  
pp. 1383-1390 ◽  
Author(s):  
Geoffroy Heimlich ◽  
Pascale Richardin ◽  
Nathalie Gandolfo ◽  
Eric Laval ◽  
Michel Menu
Keyword(s):  
Radiocarbon Dating ◽  
Democratic Republic ◽  
Rock Art ◽  
Atlantic Coast ◽  
Central Africa ◽  
Entire Region ◽  
Republic Of The Congo ◽  
Congo Brazzaville ◽  
The 19Th Century ◽  
Real Challenge

Lower Congo rock art is concentrated in a region that stretches from Kinshasa to the Atlantic coast and from northern Angola to southern Congo-Brazzaville. Although Lower Congo rock art was identified as early as the 19th century, it had never been a subject of thorough investigation. Presently inhabited by the Ndibu, one of the Kongo subgroups, the Lovo Massif is situated north of the ancient Kongo Kingdom. With 102 sites (including 16 decorated caves), the massif has the largest concentration of rock art in the entire region. In 2008 and 2010, we were able to collect pigment samples directly on the panels of the newly discovered decorated cave of Tovo. Unlike the Sahara and southern Africa, both extensively prospected, rock art of central Africa is still widely unknown and not dated. Radiocarbon dating of rock art in Africa is a real challenge and only a few direct dates have been obtained thus far. After verifying that the pigment samples were indeed charcoal, we proceeded to 14C date them using accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS). The results indicate dates between cal AD 1480 and 1800, confirming that the occupation of Tovo Cave was contemporaneous with the ancient Kongo Kingdom.

scholarly journals Disputes about Imposed and Made-up Versions

2020 ◽  
Vol 65 (4) ◽  
pp. 1302-1325
Author(s):  
Nataliya A. Sokolova ◽  
◽  
Ekaterina Yu. Lebedeva ◽  
Keyword(s):  
19Th Century ◽  
Historical Research ◽  
Historical Documents ◽  
Secret Society ◽  
Main Argument ◽  
Secret Societies ◽  
Political Views ◽  
Other Information ◽  
Source Study ◽  
The 19Th Century

The article is dedicated to the analysis of the work by Natalia Potapova “Speaking from their cells: discourse and political strategies of the Decembrists” published in 2017. The main argument of the author is that the investigation falsified the existence of the secret society, and the accused agreed with it as they believed they could express their political views in that way. Both sides of the process, as well as Emperor Nicolas I, at the same time were mostly concerned with the European press. The choice of sources in the book is quite peculiar. Natalia Potapova, criticizing Soviet researchers who focused only on the cases with most radical confessions, is very selective herself. She analyses only the primary interrogation centered around secret society membership. Аll the Decembrists’ memoirs telling about the secret societies are deemed unreliable, and all the historical documents on the topic written before 1825 are treated as non-existing. The materials of the European press, predominantly the British, are widely used in order to model the Russian public opinion as the author believes we lack other information about it. Examining the methods, arguments and conclusions of the author, this article demonstrates that the author’s conception is not convincing, not provedб and contradicts the sources. The author’s interpretation of the last is often arbitrary and not based upon the source study, and it uncritically projects the modern situations and beliefs to the beginning of the 19th century. Thus, the work by Natalia Potapova is not, in the strictest sense, a historical research.

scholarly journals Mariia Vernadska on the role and rights of women in the society of the second half of the 19th century

2021 ◽  
Vol 2021 (54) ◽  
pp. 199-213
Author(s):  
Kseniia Lopukh ◽  
Keyword(s):  
19Th Century ◽  
Commodity Prices ◽  
Economic Life ◽  
Equal Rights ◽  
Women's Labor ◽  
Role Of Women ◽  
The Russian Empire ◽  
The 19Th Century ◽  
Ukrainian Society

The role of women in the modern socio-economic life of Ukrainian society is still underestimated. Gender issues are perceived superficially or ignored, and sometimes remain taboo despite the significant number of national and foreign research and publications, information sources and materials. Blindness to issues of the equal rights and opportunities for women and men is deeply rooted in the stereotypes and traditional views on the role and place of women in the society. The purpose of the article is to analyze the scientific and journalistic activity of Mariia Vernadska. She was the first woman who researched political and economic problems in the Russian Empire. She actively interested in the economic issues and processes in the country and analyzed them, and published a number of articles in the journal «Ekonomicheskiy ukazatel», edited by Ivan Vernadsky who was a notable economist and statistician in the first half of the 19th century. The distinguishing feature of her articles was the comprehensible writing language to present and explain the complex economic laws and principles of the genesis of the market economy. Mariia Vernadska used this method to explain the benefits of division of labor, technological progress, free trade, cost sharing and cooperation, road quality, etc. She also criticized the regulation of commodity prices and persisted in the abolition of serfdom explaining its economic inefficiency and backwardness. Mariia Vernadska espoused the ideas of classical political economy, mainly the principle of individual freedom. This basic principle was used by her for interpretation of the women’s labor, the role of women in the society, the women’s rights to pick and choose the activities. She paid special attention to the necessity and the value of the women’s work as a basis for the equality between men and women. She emphasized that it could be achieved due to the education and fighting prejudices against the shame of women's working.

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