Indian Buddhism

2021 ◽  
pp. 82-110
Author(s):  
Christopher W. Gowans
Keyword(s):  
Human Nature ◽  
Spiritual Exercises ◽  
Intrinsic Nature ◽  
Ideal State ◽  
Indian Buddhism ◽  
Starting Point ◽  
The Buddha ◽  
The Ideal

The chapter argues that the teaching of the Buddha, Buddhaghosa’s Visuddhimagga, and Śāntideva’s Bodhicaryāvatāra are each plausibly interpreted as self-cultivation philosophies. For each, the existential starting point is that we are caught in a cycle of rebirth permeated by suffering caused by craving, something rooted in the delusion that we are selves or have an intrinsic nature. The ideal state of being is centrally the awareness that we are not selves or are empty of an intrinsic nature. This awareness—nirvana—is a state of peace and compassion that ends the cycle of rebirth. The transformation from suffering to nirvana is achieved through intellectual, ethical, and meditative disciplines, the spiritual exercises, namely the Eightfold Path or the Six Perfections. Though Buddhism denies that there is a self, this denial is connected to an understanding of human nature as consisting of five kinds of “aggregates” and having the capacity for enlightenment.

Epicureanism

2021 ◽  
pp. 115-140
Author(s):  
Christopher W. Gowans
Keyword(s):  
Human Nature ◽  
Mental Distress ◽  
Moral Virtue ◽  
Well Being ◽  
Fear Of Death ◽  
Philosophical Foundation ◽  
Physical Pain ◽  
Ideal State ◽  
Starting Point ◽  
The Ideal

The chapter argues that ancient Epicureanism (mainly Epicurus, Lucretius, and Philodemus) is plausibly interpreted as a self-cultivation philosophy. The existential starting point is a life of irrational fears and frustrated desires. The ideal state of well-being is a life of pleasure, understood primarily as the absence of physical pain and mental distress (more tranquilism than hedonism). This ideal life is free of fear of death and the gods, and it is devoted to friendship, moral virtue, and the pursuit of desires only if they are natural and necessary. The philosophical foundation is a materialist, atomistic theory of nature and human nature that entails that death is nothing to fear, the gods are unconcerned with us, and only natural and necessary desires are important. We achieve this ideal through spiritual exercises that involve learning Epicurean philosophy, modifying desires, and cultivating virtue in a community of like-minded people.

Pyrrho and Pyrrhonism

2021 ◽  
pp. 167-194
Author(s):  
Christopher W. Gowans
Keyword(s):  
Human Nature ◽  
Specific Nature ◽  
Sextus Empiricus ◽  
Ideal State ◽  
Starting Point ◽  
Emotionally Troubled ◽  
The World ◽  
Pyrrhonian Skepticism ◽  
The Relationship ◽  
The Ideal

The chapter argues that Pyrrho and ancient Pyrrhonian skepticism (specifically, Sextus Empiricus) are plausibly interpreted as accepting a self-cultivation philosophy, though in somewhat different senses and with some qualification. For both, the existential starting point is an emotionally troubled life rooted in beliefs about the world, and the ideal state of being is a life of tranquility without these beliefs and guided by appearances. It is difficult to say what spiritual exercises Pyrrho thought were needed to achieve the ideal state: perhaps learning his philosophy and habituating ourselves to follow it. However, for Sextus, employment of skeptical arguments was the primary exercise. Since neither Pyrrho nor Sextus supposed we could make assertions about the specific nature of things, neither had a philosophy of human nature in a straightforward sense. Nonetheless, presentations of their outlooks betray some perspective on this (e.g., about the relationship between absence of belief and tranquility).

What Are Self-Cultivation Philosophies?

2021 ◽  
pp. 1-26
Author(s):  
Christopher W. Gowans
Keyword(s):  
Reflective Practice ◽  
Human Nature ◽  
Virtue Epistemology ◽  
Philosophical Analysis ◽  
Human Beings ◽  
Cognitive Capacities ◽  
Ideal State ◽  
Starting Point ◽  
Part Structure ◽  
Life Philosophy

The chapter defines the concept of a self-cultivation philosophy. This proposes that human beings can and should move from a troubled state of existence to some ideal state of being via spiritual exercises guided by some philosophical analysis. Philosophy is defined as a reflective practice that seeks understanding of fundamental assumptions in our life. Philosophy may be a practical discipline or a theoretical one, and it may be based on whatever cognitive capacities human beings possess, including reason and awareness. This claim is defended by reference to virtue epistemology. Self-cultivation philosophy has a four-part structure: an account of human nature, an existential starting point, an ideal state of being, and a transformation program. The transformation program consists of exercises which have four functions: Cognition, Purification, Doctrine, and Habituation. Self-cultivation philosophies are often expressed in transformational texts intended to guide people in how to live their lives according to the philosophy

Right Thoughts at the Last Moment

2016 ◽  
Author(s):  
Jacqueline I. Stone
Keyword(s):  
Historical Records ◽  
Pure Land ◽  
Ritual Performance ◽  
Medieval Japan ◽  
Religious Professionals ◽  
Devotional Practices ◽  
Evil Person ◽  
The Moment ◽  
The Buddha ◽  
The Ideal

Buddhists across Asia have often sought to die, as the Buddha himself is said to have done, with a clear and focused mind. This study explores the reception and development in early medieval Japan (roughly, tenth through fourteenth centuries) of the ideal of “dying with right mindfulness” (rinjū shōnen) and the discourses and practices in which it was embedded. By concentrating one’s thoughts on the Buddha at the moment of death, it was said, even the most evil person could escape the round of deluded rebirth and achieve birth in the Pure Land; conversely, even the slightest mental distraction at that juncture could send the most devout practitioner tumbling down into the evil realms. The ideal of mindful death thus generated both hope and anxiety and created a demand for ritual specialists who could help the dying to negotiate this crucial juncture. Examination of hagiographies, ritual manuals, doctrinal writings, didactic tales, diaries, and historical records uncovers the multiple, sometimes contradictory logics by which medieval Japanese approached death. Deathbed practices also illuminate broader issues in medieval Japanese religion that crossed social levels and sectarian lines, including intellectual developments, devotional practices, pollution concerns, ritual performance, and divisions of labor among religious professionals.

The Republic

2019 ◽  
pp. 205-229
Author(s):  
Dominic Scott
Keyword(s):  
Political Theory ◽  
Left Behind ◽  
Ideal State ◽  
The Republic ◽  
Individual Justice ◽  
The Individual ◽  
Political Right ◽  
First Time ◽  
The Ideal

This chapter presents a reading of Plato’s Republic. The Republic is among Plato’s most complex works. From its title, the first-time reader will expect a dialogue about political theory, yet the work starts from the perspective of the individual, coming to focus on the question of how, if at all, justice contributes to an agent’s happiness. Only after this question has been fully set out does the work evolve into an investigation of politics—of the ideal state and of the institutions that sustain it, especially those having to do with education. But the interest in individual justice and happiness is never left behind. Rather, the work weaves in and out of the two perspectives, individual and political, right through to its conclusion. All this may leave one wondering about the unity of the work. The chapter shows that, despite the enormous range of topics discussed, the Republic fits together as a coherent whole.

WEIRD societies may be more compatible with human nature

2010 ◽  
Vol 33 (2-3) ◽  
pp. 103-104 ◽  
Author(s):  
Alexandra Maryanski
Keyword(s):  
Human Nature ◽  
Starting Point ◽  
Traditional Societies

AbstractAre WEIRD societies unrepresentative of humanity? According to Henrich et al., they are not useful for generalizing about humans because they are at the extreme end of the distribution for societal formations. In their vision, it is best to stick with the “tried and true” traditional societies for speculations about human nature. This commentary offers a more realistic starting point, and, oddly enough, concludes that WEIRD populations may be more compatible with humans' evolved nature than are most traditional societies.

Theoretical determination of the structures of CaSiO3 perovskites

2006 ◽  
Vol 62 (6) ◽  
pp. 1025-1030 ◽  
Author(s):  
Razvan Caracas ◽  
Renata M. Wentzcovitch
Keyword(s):  
Crystal Structure ◽  
Experimental Data ◽  
Density Functional Theory ◽  
Density Functional ◽  
Theoretical Determination ◽  
Functional Theory ◽  
Starting Point ◽  
Atomic Coordinates ◽  
The Ideal

Density functional theory is used to determine the possible crystal structure of the CaSiO3 perovskites and their evolution under pressure. The ideal cubic perovskite is considered as a starting point for studying several possible lower-symmetry distorted structures. The theoretical lattice parameters and the atomic coordinates for all the structures are determined, and the results are discussed with respect to experimental data.

The Holistic and Policy-Focused Interpretation of Hypothetical Insurance

2015 ◽  
Vol 2 (1) ◽  
Author(s):  
Douglas Bamford
Keyword(s):  
Insurance Scheme ◽  
Starting Point ◽  
Holistic Interpretation ◽  
The Ideal

AbstractThis paper argues that the best interpretation of Ronald Dworkin’s hypothetical insurance scheme is a holistic one that allows the parties to make choices between the policies that are available. This interpretation contrasts with the hypothecated and insurance-focused aspects that are traditionally understood as part of the procedure. The paper argues that the holistic interpretation better fits with the ideal of resource egalitarianism that people should have as much choice as possible from an equal starting point. It does so by allowing people a choice over the policies that will be used to achieve their insurance preferences.

scholarly journals NEGARA DAN KEPEMIMPINAN DALAM PEMIKIRAN ALFARABI

2017 ◽  
Vol 14 (2) ◽  
pp. 283
Author(s):  
Imam Sukardi
Keyword(s):  
Political Thought ◽  
The State ◽  
Human Organism ◽  
Ideal State ◽  
Political Concept ◽  
The Social ◽  
Original Works ◽  
Universal Values ◽  
The Government ◽  
The Ideal

The political concept of Alfarabi is derivated from the concept of Platonic, Aristotelian, and Islam. The ideal state is the state which is elaborated the universal values of humanism, not just limited to certain ethnic and nation which is emphasizing its obedience just to God, not the something else. In this paper, the writer tried to interpret the original works of Alfarabi which is directly related to his political thought and the other thinkers who are studying his political thought. In his political thought, Alfarabi emphasized that the main purpose of the state is to make the social-welfare for its citizens. Based on the organic theory, Alfarabi stated that the government of the state is just look-like the human organism system. In which, each of the existing element functioned to strengthen each other to achieve one goal. The ideal state for Alfarabi is the state which is having the goals for its citizen welfare, and who become the prime leader is a philosopher, who is having the prophetic character, having the wider knowledge, and able to communicate with al 'aql al fa’al trough al ‘aql mustafad. 

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