The historical development of Australia’s public utilities

2021 ◽  
pp. 17-48
Author(s):  
Malcolm Abbott ◽  
Bruce Cohen
Keyword(s):  
20Th Century ◽  
19Th Century ◽  
Historical Development ◽  
Early Years ◽  
Public Utilities ◽  
Historical Background ◽  
The Government ◽  
The 19Th Century

This chapter sets out the historical background to the utilities sector in Australia up until the 1980s. In doing so it provides an account of the predominant, government-owned model of utilities ownership that existed in Australia at that time. Australia’s utilities were created as government-owned enterprises in the 19th century (post, water, and rail) or in the early years of the 20th century (electricity, telecommunications, and airports). Material in this chapter traces these origins up until the immediate pre-reform years of the 1980s, and examines some of the weaknesses in the government-owned models that had arisen by this time.

Introduction

2020 ◽  
pp. 1-18
Author(s):  
Fernando Rios
Keyword(s):  
Indigenous People ◽  
20Th Century ◽  
19Th Century ◽  
Historical Background ◽  
Late 19Th Century ◽  
La Paz ◽  
Central District ◽  
The Republic ◽  
The 19Th Century ◽  
Opening Section

The opening section of this chapter introduces the reader to the Andean conjunto tradition, especially its Bolivian variant, and lays out the book’s three major contributions. The second section discusses the folklorization process, and explains how it relates to the major case studies that the book covers. The final two sections of this chapter provide historical background on pre–20th-century La Paz. The first one discusses the Bolivian state’s antagonistic relationship with the indigenous population from the founding of the Republic of Bolivia (1825) to the late 19th century. The concluding section, after explaining how the central district of La Paz city was segregated along ethnic lines, provides an overview of the forms of musical expression that criollo (“white”), mestizo, and indigenous people practiced in urban La Paz in the 19th century.

Farewell to Unjustified Enrichment?

2016 ◽  
Vol 20 (2) ◽  
pp. 123-148 ◽  
Author(s):  
Nils Jansen
Keyword(s):  
20Th Century ◽  
19Th Century ◽  
Present State ◽  
German Law ◽  
Property Right ◽  
Historical Background ◽  
German Speaking ◽  
Unjustified Enrichment ◽  
The 19Th Century ◽  
Made In

In this article, Professor Jansen sets out the historical background and present state of unjustified enrichment theory in the German-speaking civilian legal systems, Austria, Germany, and Switzerland. The German law of unjustified enrichment has grown from two intellectually separate roots. These different legal ideas were interwoven during the 19th century by the German Pandectists. During the 20th century, it began to appear to many that these ideas did not fit well with one another. Professor Jansen thus argues that the modern civilian law of unjustified enrichment is increasingly characterised by a division into independent and distinct parts. In particular, the rules on the unwinding of contracts and on payments made in contemplation of future contracts no longer have much in common with claims based on an infringement of another person's property right. The conclusion drawn is that the Germanic systems should take their leave of the unifying idea of unjustified enrichment.

Photography in Indonesian Archaeology of the 19th to the Early 20th Century | Fotografi dalam Arkeologi Indonesia pada Abad ke-19 sampai Awal Abad ke-20 Masehi

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
Keyword(s):  
Literature Review ◽  
20Th Century ◽  
19Th Century ◽  
Object Representation ◽  
Colonial Period ◽  
Historical Background ◽  
Early 20Th Century ◽  
Photographic Documentation ◽  
The Subject ◽  
The 19Th Century

In Dutch East India, photographic documentation for antiquities was as up-to-date as in Europe that was developed in the last half of the 19th century. Photography became a tool for archaeological surveys which resulted in thousands of enormous resources. In this paper, the historical background regarding how these old photographs were collected and how the material circulated within archaeological activities will be elaborated. The timeline studied is limited to pre-independence Indonesia with the subject mostly focused on Hindu-Buddhist remains. The method used is literature review of both relevant new publications as well as significant old publications. Its turns out that photographic surveys of archaeology in Indonesia during the colonial period developed from early archaeological activities into systematic institutional programs. The qualities of photography were appreciated in miscellaneous application and offered substantial benefits. Photography became a documentation medium, publication complementary, archive, and object representation and substitution. This historical background of photography in the context of Indonesian archaeology marks the significant value of these photographs so that it can be the foundation of preservation for the future. Di Hindia Belanda, dokumentasi fotografis pada tinggalan purbakala sangat mutakhir sebagaimana di Eropa yang dikembangkan sejak paruh terakhir abad ke-19 M. Fotografi menjadi perangkat untuk survei arkeologi yang menghasilkan ribuan sumber daya. Dalam tulisan ini, latar belakang sejarah terkait pengumpulan foto lama tersebut serta penggunaannya dalam berbagai aktifitas arkeologi akan dijabarkan. Lini masa yang dikaji dibatasi pada Indonesia pra-kemerdekaan dengan subjek yang berfokus pada tinggalan Hindu-Buddhis. Metode yang digunakan adalah kajian pustaka, baik terbitan terbaru yang relevan maupun terbitan lama yang penting. Ternyata survei fotografi pada arkeologi Indonesia selama periode kolonial berkembang sejak aktifitas arkeologis yang masih dini hingga menjadi program institusi yang sistematis. Kualitas fotografi juga diapresiasi dalam beragam penerapan serta menawarkan manfaat yang substansial, Fotografi menjadi media dokumentasi, pelengkap publikasi, arsip, serta representasi dan substitusi objek. Latar belakang sejarah fotografi dalam konteks arkeologi Indonesia semacam ini menjadikan nilai penting dari foto-foto tersebut sehingga dapat dijadikan fondasi dalam pelestarian untuk masa depan.

scholarly journals The New Role of Ulama in Nigeria: Focus on the Post 1999 Democratic Dispensation

2014 ◽  
Vol 52 (2) ◽  
pp. 391
Author(s):  
Mukhtar Umar Bunza
Keyword(s):  
20Th Century ◽  
19Th Century ◽  
Northern Nigeria ◽  
British Imperialism ◽  
The Government ◽  
In The Beginning ◽  
The 19Th Century ◽  
The Impact ◽  
Muslim Scholars

Nigeria is a country with a centuries’ long tradition of Islamic revivalism and activism. It was the impact of the activities of the 17th century scholars of Nigeria that culminated in the success of the 19th century tajdeed movement that brought about the emergence of the muslim caliphate of Sokoto. British imperialism brought an end to the caliphate in the beginning of the 20th century, the circumstances of which have been consistently challenged mainly by the ulama and their followers ever since. Some contemporary scholars such as Shaikh Abubakar Mahmud Gummi, former Grand Qadi of Northern Nigeria, contributed significantly in the new dimension to the roles of muslim scholars in the government. Since 1999 muslim scholars have taken on new roles in the administration of states, serving as commissioners for newly established ministries for Religious Affairs, as special advisers, or directors of commissions like Hisbah, Hajj, Masjid, Moon Sighting, and other related government bodies, with full salaries and other benefits unlike ever before in the Nigerian system. This new role of ulama and its impacts in the governance of the contemporary Nigeria is what this paper intends to investigate and expound.[Nigeria merupakan sebuah negara dengan tradisi revivalisme dan aktivisme Islam selama berabad-abad. Hal itu terkait dengan upaya para ulama Nigeria abad ke-17 yang berpuncak pada keberhasilan gerakan tajdid pada abad 19 dengan munculnya kekhalifahan muslim dari Sokoto. Imperialisme Inggris mengakhiri kekhalifahan ini pada awal abad ke-20, yang terus dilawan oleh terutama para ulama secara konsisten. Beberapa ulama kontemporer seperti Syaikh Abubakar Mahmud Gummi, mantan Grand Qadi Nigeria Utara, memberikan kontribusi signifikan dalam membentuk dimensi baru peran ulama dalam pemerintahan Nigeria modern. Sejak tahun 1999 para ulama telah mengambil peran baru dalam pemerintahan, sebagai pegawai Kementerian Agama yang baru didirikan, sebagai penasihat ahli, atau direktur komisi seperti Hisbah, Haji, Masjid, Rukyah Hilal, dan badan-badan pemerintah terkait lainnya, dengan gaji penuh. Peran baru dari ulama dan pengaruhnya dalam pemerintahan Nigeria kontemporer inilah yang menjadi fokus tulisan ini.]

Liberal-Conservative and Liberal Views on the Popular Representation in the Beginning of the 20th Century and Their Reflection in the Legislation of 1905–1906

2018 ◽  
Vol 42 ◽  
pp. 223-231
Author(s):  
Vadim A. Demin
Keyword(s):  
20Th Century ◽  
19Th Century ◽  
Political System ◽  
Political Control ◽  
Political Movements ◽  
Liberal Society ◽  
The Government ◽  
In The Beginning ◽  
The 19Th Century ◽  
Further Development

The article is devoted to the study of the views of Russian liberals and liberal-conservatives on the representative authority in the beginning of the 20th century. It is shown that since the 70-ies of the 19th century all of them supported the transfer to representative authority. By the beginning of the 20th century even moderate liberals could not envisage further development of the country without such reforms. The revolution of 1905 intensified the activity of all social and political movements. Liberal conservatives supported the introduction of advisory representation that was to be elected by the democratized “Zemstva” and that should submit their opinions directly to the Emperor. The liberals pressed for the introduction of the parliament elected by universal, equal, direct and secret voting, that would issue laws, approve the budget and effect political control of the government. The development of political system reforms had bureaucratic and secret character. The demands of liberal society were taken into account only occasionally and only on minor issues. And it became the factor that intensified confrontation of the government and the educated society.

scholarly journals Ormianie polscy w Besarabii

Lehahayer ◽  
2018 ◽  
Vol 4 ◽  
pp. 99-147
Author(s):  
Jakub Ber
Keyword(s):  
20Th Century ◽  
19Th Century ◽  
Economic Status ◽  
Early Years ◽  
Russian Revolution ◽  
Religious Orders ◽  
Agricultural Reform ◽  
Russian State ◽  
The 19Th Century ◽  
Deep Crisis

Polish Armenians in BessarabiaPolish Armenians used to settle in Bessarabia since the early years of Russian rule in this province (after 1812). Initially their activities focused on the lease of land, rearing cattle and its export to Austria. In the second half of the 19th century the wealthiest representatives of these people (families such as Antoniewicz, Demianowicz, Negrusz, Ohanowicz, Szymonowicz) managed to accumulate considerable capital, owing to which they managed to purchase and acquire ownership of great estates in northern Bessarabia. The circumstances of their rise in economic status were a source of controversy and they were strictly associated with the problem of the estates of foreign religious orders. The peak of the influence of Polish Armenians in Bessarabia was associated with the final two decades of Russian rule in that province i.e. the turn of the 20th century. In this context, the figure of Antoni Demianowicz was crucial. He was a deputy during all four terms of the Russian State Duma and one of the principal Bessarabian politicians of this period. The outbreak of the Russian revolution put an end to the “golden age” of the Polish Armenians in Bessarabia, whose fate was sealed by the Romanian agricultural reform of 1920 and the deep crisis which struck this province in the inter-war period.

scholarly journals A katalázkutatás kétszáz éve, 1818–2018

2018 ◽  
Vol 159 (24) ◽  
pp. 959-964 ◽  
Author(s):  
László Góth
Keyword(s):  
Diabetes Mellitus ◽  
Reactive Oxygen Species ◽  
Hydrogen Peroxide ◽  
20Th Century ◽  
19Th Century ◽  
Tumour Marker ◽  
Early Years ◽  
Plant Tissues ◽  
Oxygen Species ◽  
The 19Th Century

Abstract: L. J. Thénard and J. L. Gay-Lussac discovered hydrogen peroxide in 1818. Later, Thénard noticed that animal and plant tissues decompose hydrogen peroxide. The substance which is responsible for this reaction was named as catalase by O. Loew in 1900. The catalase enzyme was regarded as a diagnostic and a tumour marker in the late years of the 19th century and in the early years of the 20th century. Acatalasemia, an inherited deficiency of enzyme catalase, was studied in Japan, Switzerland and Hungary. The recent findings on catalase are focusing on the effects of reactive oxygen species and on the association of acatalasemia and diabetes mellitus. Orv Hetil. 2018; 159(24): 959–964.

scholarly journals “The Only Pictures in Memory of the Great War”: The Heroic Spirit, Orientalism, and the Problems of Representational Depictions of the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878

2018 ◽  
Vol 17 (3) ◽  
pp. 240-255
Author(s):  
Andrei Teslya
Keyword(s):  
20Th Century ◽  
19Th Century ◽  
Pictorial Representation ◽  
Great War ◽  
The Public ◽  
The Government ◽  
Balkan Crisis ◽  
Pictorial Representations ◽  
The 19Th Century ◽  
The Great War

The Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878 spawned a request from both the government and the public for an appropriate pictorial representation to be evaluated in the categories of ‘high art’, a request which revealed the inability of the predominant aesthetics to be satisfied. The paintings on the subjects of the preceding Balkan Crisis of 1875–1876 easily appealed to the existing reserve of descriptive means in primarily appealing to Orientalist motives by using the international Oriental-artistic language. In this case, painters such as K. Makovsky or V. Polenov did not need to resort to some inversions in the “Turkestan Series” by V. Vereshchagin: the developed artistic language allowed the conveying of the desired content without loss. On the contrary, attempts to present pictorial representations of the Russo-Turkish War found that the old military art was no longer perceived as genuine “art”. Thus, in not being regarded as a proper fixation of “memorable events”, the prevailing new aesthetics was unable to convey the pathos and heroics desired by the authorities. At the same time, it was found that a strong aesthetic effect in military plots was achieved through “seriality”, the interpretation of similar plots as isolated and independent. However, this did not produce a significant effect, that is to say, painting as such was not self-sufficient since it required the assistance of the text, the sequence of images, etc. The problem was reduced significantly with the new aesthetics of the 20th century, and in the last decades of the 19th century, in connection with mentioned above difficulties of painting, historical plots acquired new value, providing new opportunities for the representation of heroic themes while simultaneously giving greater aesthetic freedom.

Immigrant Arab Women in Chile during the Renaissance (Nahda), 1910s-1920s

1970 ◽  
pp. 47-55
Author(s):  
Sarah Limorté
Keyword(s):  
20Th Century ◽  
19Th Century ◽  
Thematic Analysis ◽  
New World ◽  
Arab Women ◽  
Arab Woman ◽  
The Subject ◽  
The 19Th Century

Levantine immigration to Chile started during the last quarter of the 19th century. This immigration, almost exclusively male at the outset, changed at the beginning of the 20th century when women started following their fathers, brothers, and husbands to the New World. Defining the role and status of the Arab woman within her community in Chile has never before been tackled in a detailed study. This article attempts to broach the subject by looking at Arabic newspapers published in Chile between 1912 and the end of the 1920s. A thematic analysis of articles dealing with the question of women or written by women, appearing in publications such as Al-Murshid, Asch-Schabibat, Al-Watan, and Oriente, will be discussed.

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