Climate: Mean State, Variability, and Change

2005 ◽  
Author(s):  
Cor Schuurmans
Keyword(s):  
Reference Values ◽  
Western Europe ◽  
North Atlantic Ocean ◽  
Weather Conditions ◽  
Climatic Conditions ◽  
The North ◽  
Temperature And Precipitation ◽  
The One ◽  
Definition Of ◽  
Mean State

This chapter gives a description of the main characteristics of present-day climate. In describing the mean state and its variability, attention is also given to the underlying causes. For comparison, there is a short summary of early European climate, from the last glacial maximum, through the Holocene and up to the Little Ice Age (the period AD 1400–1850). The chapter finishes with a comprehensive section on climate change, with emphasis on the anthropogenic causes of recent changes. The climate of western Europe has a maritime character. The weather mainly originates from the North Atlantic Ocean and its neighbouring seas. Further inland, in what is usually called central Europe, climate changes to a more continental type, but certain maritime features are still present. It is therefore called an altered maritime climate. Only in the most southern part, southern France for instance, is the Atlantic character lost and several new features are present. These features are characteristic of a Mediterranean climate. Climates may be called cold or warm, dry or wet, gloomy or sunny, depending on the prevailing temperatures, amount and frequency of precipitation, and the number of hours of bright sunshine. Such terms, however, are not objective unless certain, generally accepted, reference values are used. In the past different sets of reference values were proposed, each of them defining a system of climatic types. A well-known classification system was the one developed by Köppen (1936). The Köppen system distinguished eleven main climate types, based on well-defined temperature and precipitation characteristics. These were mainly referring to the response of vegetation, natural as well as cultivated, to climatic conditions. The eleven Köppen climates are indicated by the letters A–E, with some subdivision, using other letters. In the Köppen classification the whole of western Europe has a Cf climate, which means a moist, temperate climate, without a specific dry season. Cf climates occupy 22% of the globe (oceans included). A second method to describe climate is by using the well-known definition of climate as being the average weather conditions in a certain area, over a given period of time. In practice, however, there is no direct information about weather conditions.

scholarly journals Promising varieties of spring glumaceous oat of the mowing and grain-mowing directions, adapted to the natural and climatic conditions of the Volga-Vyatka region

2021 ◽  
Vol 36 ◽  
pp. 01003
Author(s):  
Elena Vologzhanina ◽  
Galina Batalova
Keyword(s):  
Weather Conditions ◽  
Climatic Conditions ◽  
High Yield ◽  
Positive Dependence ◽  
Green Mass ◽  
North East ◽  
The North ◽  
Temperature And Precipitation ◽  
Green Mass Yield ◽  
Favorable Conditions

The results of the study of 12 varieties and promising lines of glumaceous oat in the competitive variety testing of the FASC of the North-East (Kirov region) in the period from 2018 to 2020 are presented. The purpose of the research is to assess the productivity, ecological plasticity and stability of the genotypes of glumaceous oat for feed and universal use in the conditions of the Volga-Vyatka region. The dependences of grain yield and dry matter harvesting on the state of agro-climatic resources (HTC), temperature and precipitation are established. The contrasting weather conditions during the years of research allowed to conduct the most complete assessment of the studied genotypes. The most favorable conditions for the formation of a high yield of green mass of oat were formed in 2020 (Ij=3.76), grain - in 2019 (Ij=1.35). The average degree of positive dependence of green mass yield on the height of oat plants was revealed (r=0.51). The variety of the high-intensity type of the universal direction Medved, promising lines of the mowing direction (178h13 and 245h14) are distinguished.

A Note on the Zoogeographical History of North Western Europe

1936 ◽  
Vol 2 (1-2) ◽  
pp. 169-177 ◽  
Author(s):  
Philip Ullyott
Keyword(s):  
Western Europe ◽  
Climatic Conditions ◽  
Ice Age ◽  
The North ◽  
Cultural Sites ◽  
History Of ◽  
The Times ◽  
Definition Of ◽  
North Western ◽  
Geochronological Scale

Sometime after the last retreat of the ice in the Quaternary ice age, the Scandinavian peninsula was separated on the south from the north German plain and Denmark. Later, England was cut off by the Channel from the continental land mass. An estimation of the times at which these two events happened is interesting to archaeologists, botanists and zoologists alike, because the communities with which they are concerned are affected by the barrier of an intervening arm of the sea.So far most of the evidence about the times of separation comes from botanical and archaeological sources, from pollen analysis and the investigation of cultural sites. In this paper the distribution and physiology of certain freshwater animals are used to provide argument that the separation of Scandinavia and of England could only have taken place at times of particular climatic conditions. The climatic definition of the times of separation makes it possible to fit them in to the absolute geochronological scale which has been established by Scandinavian workers.

scholarly journals Biological basis of sorghum cultivation in the North-West of the Non-Chernozem zone

2021 ◽  
Vol 22 (4) ◽  
pp. 531-541
Author(s):  
Elena P. Shkodina
Keyword(s):  
Weather Conditions ◽  
Climatic Conditions ◽  
High Yield ◽  
High Plasticity ◽  
Forage Production ◽  
Daily Growth ◽  
North West ◽  
Green Mass ◽  
The North ◽  
The One

The need to restore the dairy cattle population and the feed base in the North-West region of the Russian Federation requires new sources of feed with high yield and nutritional values. The purpose of the research is to study the possibility of sugar sorghum introduction into the region for forage use. The research was conducted in 2017-2020 in the conditions of the Novgorod region. On plots with an area of 10 m2 in the third decade of May sugar sorghum was sown: a hybrid of the first generation Silosnoe 88, the Galia variety, the Laretz line. The predecessors were potato (2017, 2018, 2020) and vetch and oat mix (2019). The ability of sugar sorghum to stop developing and hibernate in unfavorable weather conditions, resuming vegetation when the weather improves, has been established. Intensive plant growth was observed at the end of July-August with the average daily growth of 1.9-5.0 cm. By the end of August, the plant height reached 245-280 cm, the yield of green mass was 110 t/ha (hybrid Silosnoe 88), 139.2 t/ha (variety Galia), 136 t/ha (Laretz line). In the extreme conditions of 2017, the yield of sorghum green mass was 21 t/ha. The yield of dry matter (DM) from 1 ha reached 6.8-13.4 t/ha. The protein content in the DM was 8.4-11.5 %, the yield of feed units was 0.76-0.82 kg/kg, the output of exchange energy was 9.7-10.1 MJ/kg. Sugar sorghum has an ability to grow back after mowing; in the conditions of the Novgorod region, the yield of green mass from two mowing (end of July, August-September) was lower (23.3-46.7 t/ha) than from the one at the end of August-September (44.3-139.2 t/ha). The Laretz line vegetation phases began 5-27 days later than those of the Silosnoe 88 hybrid and Galiya variety. The growing season of sugar sorghum ended in the phase of “heading of panicles - flowering”. Thus, a high plasticity and adaptability of sorghum varieties to unfavorable climatic conditions of the zone and their prospects for use in forage production have been established.

„Socialist postmodernism”: residential architecture in Kyiv Podil district (Ukraine)

BUILDER ◽  
2021 ◽  
Vol 293 (12) ◽  
pp. 46-51
Author(s):  
Svitlana Linda
Keyword(s):  
Soviet Union ◽  
Construction Projects ◽  
Architectural Design ◽  
Western Europe ◽  
The United States ◽  
Residential Architecture ◽  
The Soviet Union ◽  
The One ◽  
Definition Of ◽  
Residential Quarters

Despite the short chronological span of the socialist era architecture heritage, it remains little investigated and underappreciated. Given the political and cultural isolation of the Soviet Union republics and strict architectural design regulations, there was a widespread belief that architects should not use innovative trends. This article exemplifies residential quarters in the historic Podil district, designed and built in the 1970s-1980s in Kyiv. They vividly demonstrate the postmodern ideas embodied in Ukrainian architecture. Methodologically, the article bases on the Ch. Jencks definition of postmodernism and in the comparison of his ideology with the implemented Kyiv project. It states that Kyiv architects proposed not typical Soviet construction projects but international postmodern architectural solutions. It proves that, on the one hand, Ukrainian architects had perfect qualifications to draw construction projects implementing advanced world trends of the time. But on the other hand, it highlights that postmodernism in architecture did not merely confine to Western Europe and the United States but also penetrated the Iron Curtain, exemplifying innovative architectural thinking which ran contrary to the modernist paradigm.

Anadromous Sturgeons: Habitats, Threats, and Management

2007 ◽  
Keyword(s):  
North America ◽  
Middle Ages ◽  
North Atlantic Ocean ◽  
Atlantic Coast ◽  
Climatic Conditions ◽  
Temperature Adaptation ◽  
Atlantic Sturgeon ◽  
The North ◽  
European Sturgeon ◽  
The Baltic

<em>Abstract.</em> - Sea sturgeons are closely related anadromous fishes inhabiting both shores of the North Atlantic Ocean. They are classified in two species: the European sturgeon <em>Acipenser sturio</em> in Europe and the Atlantic sturgeon <em>A. oxyrinchus</em> in North America. The Atlantic sturgeon is further separated into two subspecies: Atlantic sturgeon (North American East Coast populations) <em>A. o. oxyrinchus</em> and Gulf sturgeon <em>A. o. desotoi. </em>Most recent studies of morphology and genetics support these classifications. Furthermore, they produced evidence for a trans-Atlantic colonization event during the early Middle Ages. Atlantic sturgeon colonized Baltic waters, founding a self-reproducing population before they became extinct due to anthropogenic reasons. Today, populations of Atlantic sturgeon are found along the Atlantic Coast from the St. Johns River, Florida to the St. Lawrence River, Quebec, whereas only one relict spawning population of European sturgeon still exists in the Gironde River, France. The evidence of a population of Atlantic sturgeon in Baltic waters requires a detailed comparison of both sea sturgeon species, describing differences and similarities, which may influence the ongoing restoration projects in Europe as well as concerning conservation efforts in North America. This article reviews similarities and differences in the fields of genetics, morphology, and ecological adaptation of European sturgeon and Atlantic sturgeon, concluding that, besides morphological and genetic differences, a wider range of spawning temperatures in Atlantic sturgeon is evident. This wider temperature adaptation may be a selective advantage under fast-changing climatic conditions, possibly the mechanism that enabled the species shift in the Baltic Sea during the Middle Ages.

scholarly journals IX.—On the Glacial Succession in Europe

1895 ◽  
Vol 37 (1) ◽  
pp. 127-149
Author(s):  
James Geikie
Keyword(s):  
North Sea ◽  
Western Europe ◽  
Climatic Conditions ◽  
Marine Origin ◽  
The North ◽  
Pleistocene Period ◽  
The North Sea ◽  
North Western

For many years geologists have recognised the occurrence of at least two boulder-clays in the British Islands and the corresponding latitudes of the Continent. It is no longer doubted that these are the products of two separate and distinct glacial epochs. This has been demonstrated by the appearance of intercalated deposits of terrestrial, freshwater, or, as the case may be, marine origin. Such interglacial accumulations have been met with again and again in Britain, and they have likewise been detected at many places on the Continent, between the border of the North Sea and the heart of Russia. Their organic contents indicate in some cases cold climatic conditions; in others, they imply a climate not less temperate or even more genial than that which now obtains in the regions where they occur. Nor are such interglacial beds confined to northern and north-western Europe. In the Alpine Lands of the central and southern regions of our Continent they are equally well developed. Impressed by the growing strength of the evidence, it is no wonder that geologists, after a season of doubt, should at last agree in the conclusion that the glacial conditions of the Pleistocene period were interrupted by at least one protracted interglacial epoch. Not a few observers go further, and maintain that the evidence indicates more than this. They hold that three or even more glacial epochs supervened in Pleistocene times. This is the conclusion I reached many years ago, and I now purpose reviewing the evidence which has accumulated since then, in order to show how far it goes to support that conclusion.

scholarly journals The influence of climatic conditions on the tree-ring width of wild service trees (Sorbus torminalis L.) in Wielkopolska

2016 ◽  
Vol 77 (2) ◽  
pp. 117-123 ◽  
Author(s):  
Anna Cedro
Keyword(s):  
Tree Ring ◽  
Negative Impact ◽  
Positive Impact ◽  
Ring Width ◽  
Climatic Conditions ◽  
Climatic Data ◽  
Pointer Years ◽  
The North ◽  
Sorbus Torminalis ◽  
Temperature And Precipitation

AbstractThe wild service tree (Sorbus torminalis L.) is a very rare tree species in Poland, where it reaches the north-eastern border of its natural range. The majority of this species’ stands is found in Wielkopolska. This study was aimed at examining the relationships between the growth and climate for trees of the species Sorbus torminalis L. growing in the Wielkopolska National Park and the Pniewy forest district (Wielkopolska). The samples for the analysis were taken from 63 trees. However, taking into account the missing growth rings and the difficult identification of the tree ring borders in sapwood, only ca. 30% of the samples could be synchronised and dated accurately. Applying the classic methods of dendrochronological dating, a 94- year STW chronology was constructed, spanning the years of 1920-2013. The chronology, in turn, was used as a basis for dendroclimatological analyses, including correlation, response function, and pointer years. The climatic data used in the analyses came from the meteorological station in Poznań; providing air temperature and precipitation for a period of 66 years (1948-2013) and 48 years of insolation data (1966-2013). Insolation had the highest negative impact and precipitation had the highest positive impact on the annual growth in May and June. Positive pointer years could be linked to humid months with low insolation during the growing season, while negative pointer years are characterised by deficient precipitation, a large number of sunny hours, and high air temperatures in the summer months.

scholarly journals The Rapid Warming of the North Atlantic Ocean in the Mid-1990s in an Eddy-Permitting Ocean Reanalysis (1982–2013)

2016 ◽  
Vol 29 (15) ◽  
pp. 5417-5430 ◽  
Author(s):  
Chunxue Yang ◽  
Simona Masina ◽  
Alessio Bellucci ◽  
Andrea Storto
Keyword(s):  
Atlantic Ocean ◽  
Heat Transport ◽  
North Atlantic ◽  
North Atlantic Ocean ◽  
Ocean Reanalysis ◽  
The North ◽  
Mean Temperature ◽  
The Mean ◽  
The North Atlantic ◽  
Mean State

Abstract The rapid warming in the mid-1990s in the North Atlantic Ocean is investigated by means of an eddy-permitting ocean reanalysis. Both the mean state and variability, including the mid-1990s warming event, are well captured by the reanalysis. An ocean heat budget applied to the subpolar gyre (SPG) region (50°–66°N, 60°–10°W) shows that the 1995–99 rapid warming is primarily dictated by changes in the heat transport convergence term while the surface heat fluxes appear to play a minor role. The mean negative temperature increment suggests a warm bias in the model and data assimilation corrects the mean state of the model, but it is not crucial to reconstruct the time variability of the upper-ocean temperature. The decomposition of the heat transport across the southern edge of the SPG into time-mean and time-varying components shows that the SPG warming is mainly associated with both the anomalous advection of mean temperature and the mean advection of temperature anomalies across the 50°N zonal section. The relative contributions of the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation (AMOC) and gyre circulation to the heat transport are also analyzed. It is shown that both the overturning and gyre components are relevant to the mid-1990s warming. In particular, the fast adjustment of the barotropic circulation response to the NAO drives the anomalous transport of mean temperature at the subtropical/subpolar boundary, while the slowly evolving AMOC feeds the large-scale advection of thermal anomalies across 50°N. The persistently positive phase of the NAO during the years prior to the rapid warming likely favored the cross-gyre heat transfer and the following SPG warming.

scholarly journals Improving the efficiency of early table beet cultivation in the North-West region of Russia

2020 ◽  
Vol 210 ◽  
pp. 05012
Author(s):  
Nikolay Romanovskiy ◽  
Aleksandr Sergeyev ◽  
Eduard Papushin ◽  
Ivan Irkov ◽  
Alexey Bykov
Keyword(s):  
Fold Increase ◽  
Weather Conditions ◽  
Leningrad Region ◽  
North West ◽  
The North ◽  
Root Crops ◽  
West Region ◽  
Cultivation Technology ◽  
The One ◽  
Cultivation Techniques

The appearance of the first marketable root crops with a diameter of more than 50 mm, categorized as elite, in the North-West region of the Russian Federation, may already occur by the end of the third decade of June. The crop price during this period is at least twice the one during mass harvesting. The price depends on the product’s presence on the consumer’s market as well as on weather conditions in the regions of traditional suppliers. In some years, the price can differ by a factor of 3-4. By the time of mass harvesting using traditional technology, the number of elite root crops does not exceed 50%. In order to assess the effectiveness of the proposed early beets cultivation technology, the studies were carried out in the economic conditions of the farm, Leningrad region on the area of 3 hectares. According to the research results, the proposed technology allows to reach 3.3-fold increase of the root crops yield, which are to be sold fresh through the retail network, compared to the traditional one. The gross income using the proposed technology, calculated for sales prices of 2019, amounted to 384.6 thousand rub/ha against 125.2 thousand rub/ha using traditional cultivation techniques.

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