Gut Hormones and Neuropeptides as Mediators of Microbiome–Brain Communication
The gut microbiota interacts with the brain through multiple communication lines in which gut peptide hormones and neuropeptides play important messenger roles. These peptides are secondary chemical signals whose operation is controlled by the gut microbiota via a myriad of microbial metabolites, secondary bile acids, and structural components. We first outline a number of gut hormones (e.g., peptide YY, glucagon-like peptide, ghrelin, cholecystokinin) which communicate with the brain either via the circulation or via vagal afferent neurons. Several neuropeptides in the brain are likewise under the influence of gut microbes and mediate their impact on various aspects of brain function and behavior. These neuropeptides include neuropeptide Y, corticotropin-releasing factor, brain-derived neurotrophic factor, and several other peptides which act as neurotransmitters or trophic factors. Food intake, energy homeostasis, emotional-affective behavior, cognitive performance, stress resilience, and neurogenesis are among the processes which the gut microbiota regulates via the action of gut hormones and neuropeptides.