scholarly journals Accessibility and Reference Production

Author(s):  
Jorrig Vogels ◽  
Emiel Krahmer ◽  
Alfons Maes

This chapter reviews recent research on speakers’ referential choices in discourse. It focuses on the choice to mention a certain referent first on the one hand, and to produce a pronoun or more elaborate noun phrase on the other. Whereas traditional theories have relied mainly on influence of linguistic context to explain these choices, recent psycholinguistic studies have started investigating the effect of non-linguistic factors as well. Results of these studies suggest that the two referential choices (choice of referent and choice of referring expression) are largely driven by different sets of factors, contrary to the claim that both are related to accessibility of mental representations in memory. The chapter concludes that these findings are best explained by assuming referents can be accessible on different levels: a local and a more global discourse level. Referential choices may be influenced by both levels of accessibility, but with different probabilities for different choices.

2018 ◽  
Author(s):  
Jorrig Vogels ◽  
Emiel Krahmer ◽  
Alfons Maes

This chapter reviews recent research on speakers’ referential choices in discourse. It focuses specifically on the choice to mention a certain referent first on the one hand, and on the choice to produce a pronoun or a more elaborate noun phrase on the other. Whereas traditional theories of reference have relied mainly on the influence of the linguistic context to explain these choices, recent psycholinguistic studies have started to investigate the effect of non-linguistic factors as well. Taken together, the results of these studies suggest that the two referential choices (choice of referent and choice of referring expression) are largely driven by different sets of factors, contrary to the claim that they are both related to the accessibility of mental representations in memory. It is concluded that these findings are best explained by assuming that referents can be accessible on different levels: a local and a more global discourse level. Referential choices may be influenced by both levels of accessibility, but with different probabilities for different referential choices.


Hypatia ◽  
1998 ◽  
Vol 13 (2) ◽  
pp. 7-31 ◽  
Author(s):  
Alison M. Jaggar

The feminist conception of discourse offered below differs from classical discourse ethics. Arguing that inequalities of power are even more conspicuous in global than in local contexts, I note that a global discourse community seems to be emerging among feminists, and I explore the role played by small communities in feminism's attempts to reconcile a commitment to open discussion, on the one hand, with a recognition of the realities of power inequalities, on the other.


Author(s):  
Vlad Glăveanu

This chapter addresses why people engage in creativity. This question can be answered at different levels. On the one hand, one can refer to what motivates creative people to do what they do. On the other hand, the question addresses a deeper level, that of how societies today are built and how they, in turn, construct the meaning and value of creativity. Nowadays, people consider creativity intrinsically valuable largely because of its direct and indirect economic benefits. However, creative expression also has a role for health and well-being. Creativity also relates to meaning in life. The chapter then considers how creativity can be used for good or for evil.


2002 ◽  
Vol 7 (1) ◽  
pp. 1-14 ◽  
Author(s):  
Donatella Porta ◽  
Dieter Rucht

Environmental movements and their activities are studied from various angles, by different methods, and at different levels. While both detailed studies on single incidents of conflict and broad overviews of movements are available, relatively little work has been done at the intermediate level between these extremes. We argue that it is fruitful to engage at this level by undertaking comparative analysis of environmental campaigns. Such studies could help deal with inconclusive observations and findings on the changes of environmental movements during the last three decades. We hypothesize that indeed environmental activism has changed remarkably. By and large, conflicts are no longer marked by a relatively simple constellation of one challenger facing one target or opponent. Instead, we find a complex web of involved actors reaching from local to international levels. These actors tend to form broad alliances, and to link on different issues. Also, their activities are not restricted to only one arena or strategy but involve all available channels, arenas, and action repertoires to have an impact. Quite often, we observe loose coalitions of groups that act in an implicit division of labor, thereby playing on their respective backgrounds, foci, and experiences. Given the variety of actors, their organizational forms and tactics on the one hand and their different contexts on the other, it is unlikely that a common pattern of conflict will emerge across various issues and geographical areas. This is all the more true when comparing environmental conflicts in the Western and Non-Western world.


Author(s):  
Roberto Domínguez ◽  
Rafael Velázquez Flores

The goal of this article is to provide an overview of the literature on global governance, key elements for understanding its conceptualization, and a gateway to capture its multidimensionality. From this perspective, global governance is conceived as a framework of analysis or intellectual device to study the complexity of global processes involving multiple actors that interact at different levels of interest aggregation. The article is divided into four parts. The first section describes the origins, definitions, and characteristics of global governance. The second categorizes global governance based on different thematic areas where there is a confluence of governance practices, on the one hand, and the inclusion of a global level of interaction, on the other. The third discusses the different conceptual inquiries and innovations that have been developed around the term. Finally, the last part maps the different academic institutions that have focused their research on global governance and offer programs on this subject.


2018 ◽  
Vol 53 ◽  
pp. 348-368
Author(s):  
Вадим [Vadim] Юрьевич [IUr'evich] Меликян [Melikian] ◽  
Анна [Anna] Васильевна [Vasil'evna] Меликян [Melikian]

The phenomenon of syntactic semioimplicationSemioimplicative meaning is a “derived,” secondary meaning. The typical example of a semioimplicative meaning in syntax is the use of the positive constructions in the meaning of the negative ones and vice versa (converted meaning). The semioimplicative sentence interpretation scarcely has logical limitations. Most sentences, given the right intonation, can undergo an enantiosemic conversion. The ironical negation can be hidden in practically each sentence. In this article we single out and parameterize the main conditions of such semioimplication and the kinds of language means triggering the semioimplicative mechanism. Besides, we draw attention to the ways of expressing diverse connotations organically linked with the very process of syntactic constructions semioimplication and consistently caused by it. The core of semioimplicative structures is constituted by constructions that are able to express two meanings: direct and transferred (in this case, opposite) meaning. We have termed them “symmetrical” constructions. The sentence models with one meaning opposite to the form expressing it and also the models opposite in sign but not correlated according to some morphological characteristics serve as the periphery of semioimplication (“nonsymmetrical” constructions). The models that possess any language means facilitating their reconsideration as their own opposites are called the “specialized” models in the research. The “non-specialized” models do not have such qualities. The ability to express two opposite meanings can potentially take place on different levels of the sentence model concretization: abstract (syntactic), morphological, general lexical and concrete lexical (i.e., on the level of speech model realization). Each of the types of opposition, both objective and evaluative ones, has its own means of specialization. In the sphere of enantiosemical and evaluative opposition of the sentence meaning the dominating development line of the semioimplication phenomenon is the pursuit of maximal language expressivity, on the one hand, and of monosemanticity, accuracy, and effectiveness, on the other hand. The tendency toward language means economy turns out to be weak in this case. The reason for this process consists in the desire to assign these sentences to the sphere of the expressive syntax by using them exclusively in the secondary, ironical and most expressive meaning. As a result, the nonsymmetrical (the maximally specialized) constructions are 1.5 times more numerous than the symmetrical constructions (ones with moderate specialization). We find research of this subject-matter in its functional-communicative, cognitive, discoursive and pragmatic-linguistic aspects to be to a topical and worthwhile endeavor. Zjawisko semioimplikacji składniowejZnaczenie semioimplikacyjne to znaczenie „pochodne”, wtórne. Typowym przykładem występowania znaczenia semioimplikacyjnego w składni jest używanie konstrukcji pozytywnych w znaczeniu negatywnym i vice versa (konwersja znaczenia). Semioimplikacyjna analiza zdania praktycznie nie napotyka na logiczne ograniczenia. Większość zdań, jeśli towarzyszy im odpowiednia intonacja, w określonych kontekstach może ulegać enantiosemantycznej konwersji: ironiczne zaprzeczenie może skrywać się w praktycznie każdym zdaniu. W tym artykule identyfikujemy i parametryzujemy podstawowe warunki takiej semioimplikacji oraz rodzaje środków językowych, jakie inicjują mechanizm semioimplikacyjny. Zwracamy także uwagę na sposoby wyrażenia różnorakich konotacji związanych organicznie z samym procesem semioimplikacji struktur składniowych i regularnie przez nią wywoływanych. Rdzeniem struktur semioimplikacyjnych są konstrukcje mogące wyrażać oba znaczenia: dosłowne i przenośne (tu: przeciwstawne). Określiliśmy takie konstrukcje mianem „symetrycznych”. Za peryferia zbioru konstrukcji semioimplikacyjnych (za konstrukcje „niesymetryczne”) można uznać modele zdań mających tylko jedno znaczenie, które jednak jest przeciwstawne w stosunku do wyrażającej go formy, oraz modele o przeciwnym znaku, ale nieskorelowane pod względem niektórych parametrów morfologicznych. Modele zdań dysponujące środkami językowymi ułatwiającymi zmianę ich znaczenia na przeciwstawne nazywamy „wyspecjalizowanymi”. Modele „niewyspecjalizowane” nie dysponują takiego rodzaju środkami. Zdolność wyrażania dwóch przeciwstawnych znaczeń może potencjalnie zachodzić na różnych poziomach konkretyzacji modelu: abstrakcyjnym (składniowym), morfologicznym, leksykalnym ogólnym i leksykalnym konkretnym (tzn. na poziomie językowej realizacji modelu). Każdy z typów przeciwstawności, czy to przedmiotowej czy wartościującej, dysponuje własnymi środkami specjalizacji. W sferze enantiosemicznej i wartościującej przeciwstawności znaczeń zdania dominującym kierunkiem rozwoju zjawiska semioimplikacji jest dążenie, z jednej strony, do maksymalnej wyrazistości języka, z drugiej zaś – do jego jednoznaczności, precyzji, efektywności. Tendencja do zwiększania ekonomii środków językowych okazuje się w badanym przypadku słabsza. Przyczyną tego procesu jest dążenie do trwałego przypisania takich zdań ekspresyjnej sferze składni za sprawą używania ich wyłącznie w drugim, ironicznym, a zarazem bardziej ekspresyjnym znaczeniu. W rezultacie konstrukcji niesymetrycznych (maksymalnie wyspecjalizowanych) jest w przybliżeniu 1,5 raza więcej niż konstrukcji symetrycznych (umiarkowanie wyspecjalizowanych). Uważamy za wskazane dalsze badania nad zarysowaną tu tematyką w jej aspekcie funkcjonalno-komunikacyjnym, kognitywnym, dyskursywnym i pragmalingwistycznym.


Author(s):  
Júlia Dias Escobar Brussi

Abstract Knocking the bobbins is how lace-makers refer to “lacing”. It is an act that, at first sight, does not present any specific technical function, but which, on closer inspection, reveals itself as a fundamental elementary act for elaborating a good lace, since it ensures the firmness of the weave. Through an analysis of the different meanings of this category, the article discusses the relationship between, on the one hand, gesture and rhythm, and, on the other, effects and resulting forms. Each of the senses of knocking the bobbins analysed here are, in turn, tied to different levels of action, since all involve gestures, rhythms, effects and specific forms.


2020 ◽  
Vol 4 ◽  
pp. 41-49
Author(s):  
Shafa Nasibova ◽  

In psychology, stress is a feeling of strain and pressure. Small amounts of stress may be desired, beneficial, and even healthy. Positive stress helps improve athletic performance. It also plays a factor in motivation, adaptation, and reaction to the environment. Excessive amounts of stress, however, may lead to bodily harm. Stress can be external and related to the environment, but may also be created by internal perceptions that cause an individual to experience anxiety or other negative emotions surrounding a situation, such as pressure, discomfort, etc., which they then deem stressful. The level of resistance to stress manifests itself at different levels in individual individuals. On the one hand, it has to do with an individual's life history, on the other hand, the environment around him, the type, character, and even sex of the individual's nervous system. In the article, we talked about the stress resistance characteristics of working and non-working women.


Author(s):  
W Wood ◽  
GL Dooly ◽  
SC Moldoveanu

AbstractThis report presents the results of a study regarding the transfer of maleic hydrazide (MH) into mainstream cigarette smoke. Cigarettes with different levels of MH were used in this study. This included cigarettes with MH preexistent in the tobacco due to the agronomical practice, and with spiked MH. Because the MH can be present in tobacco as bound and free forms, both levels of MH were measured in the tobacco section. The cigarette designs covered a range of possibilities, including Plain, Filter King Size (KS), Lights 100’s, Ultra Lights, etc. The results showed that the amount of MH in smoke, on the one hand, is a function of the total particulate matter (TPM) of the cigarette, and higher TPM levels lead to more MH in smoke. On the other hand, the transferred level of MH depends on the total amount of MH (both bound and free) in the tobacco. The relative % transfer is higher for lower MH levels than for higher MH levels in tobacco. When normalized by TPM, the transfer as an average is about 0.24% per mg of TPM from the amount of MH in 1 g of tobacco, and as high as 0.46% per mg of TPM from the amount of MH in 1 g tobacco for a nonfilter low MH level cigarette. The resulting MH transfer for a nonfilter cigarette with low tobacco MH is therefore about 8.3% from the total MH in the cigarette. For filter full flavor (FF) cigarettes with high tobacco levels of MH, the transfer is about 5.8%. This relative transfer rate appears to be lower from higher MH levels in tobacco.


2016 ◽  
Vol 7 (1) ◽  
pp. 1-42 ◽  
Author(s):  
Esa Itkonen

Common claims within cognitive semantics (e.g. Johnson 1987; Lakoff 1987; Langacker 1987) are that “the most fundamental issue in linguistic theory is the nature of meaning” and “meaning is a matter of conceptualization”. But the latter claim creates a problem. On the one hand, for many cognitive semanticists conceptualization takes place under the level of consciousness. On the other hand, semantic analysis is carried out on the level of consciousness, namely by means of (conscious) intuition-cum-introspection. What is, then, meaning? As Wittgenstein argues, meaning is use, understood as a web of intersubjective norms, comparable to rules of a game and accessible to conscious intuition. In this article I elaborate on this claim, and thus offer critique to those who equate linguistic meaning with conceptualizations understood as private mental representations. Furthermore, I argue that the non-causal study of norms (langue) must be kept separate from the causal study of (norm-following or norm-breaking) behaviour (parole). Because of its variationist nature, linguistic behaviour demands statistical explanation.


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