Element composition of peat deposits in flat frost mound bogs of the Pyakupur River (northern taiga of West Siberia)

The content and the profile distribution of the element composition of the 1 meter high peat deposits in flat frost mound bogs are investigated. The botanical composition of peat is described. The results of the botanical composition analysis of peat showed that deposits consist mainly of sphagnum mosses, lichens, shrubs, green mosses, pine wood, as well as pine and birch bark. A good correlation between the degree of peat decomposition and the brightness of dry peat measured by the CIE L*a*b* color model is revealed. As a result of the study of peat samples’ color, it has been found that this parameter can be used as an express method for the rapid assessment of peat degree decomposition. The highest concentration of the organic carbon occurs at the base of the peat deposit (64.4±0.2%). The nitrogen concentration in permafrost peat is higher than in thawed (1.0 ± 0.2% and 0.7 ± 0.1%, respectively, the difference is significant at p = 0.001). The C / N ratio decreases from 72 ± 16 in 0-40 cm in the thawed layer to 50 ± 10 in the frozen part (40-100 cm). Within the bottom low boundary of the seasonally thawed layer, a local increase in the N concentration was detected, as well as an almost 2-fold decrease in the C/N ratio. It is most likely related to the high increase in the rate of microbial activity on the border between the thawed layer and the permafrost peat. It was revealed that most of the elements are concentrated in the upper (thawed) part of the peat deposit. Among them, only Na, Mg, Ca, Zn, Ba, As and Sb have a significant difference. Despite the fact that significant differences according to non-parametric U-criterion Mann-Whitney test were identified only for 7 elements, the distribution of the rest along elements the frozen and thawed peat layer is similar in nature. So for Na, Mg, Al, P, K, Ca, Ti, Fe, Zn, Ba, Li, B, V, Cr, Mn, Co, Ni, Cu, Ga, As, Rb, Sr, Y, Zr, Nb, Mo, Cd, Sb, Cs, the upper quartiles of concentrations in the seasonally thawed layer are 1.2 - 6.9 times higher than in the permafrost peat, and for C, N, Al, Ba, B, V, Co, Cu , Zr, Nb, Mo it is 1,0 - 0,6 times lower, respectively. Generally, according to the element composition, it is safe to say that the differences stem from the botanical composition. In general, according to the elemental composition it can be said that the differences are primarily due to the botanical composition. The active layer comprises mainly sphagnum mosses and lichens, the woody peat already appears in the lower permafrost part of the deposit. A correlation between the brightness of peat and the total content of ash elements (R2 = 0.65, excluding 1 sample) was revealed within the active layer. Taking into account the fact that the brightness correlates with the degree of decomposition, it may be concluded that higher upper quartile of the concentrations of elements in the active layer relates to the slower peat accumulation rate for the last 3 thousand years and, correspondingly, a large accumulation of dust components from the atmosphere by the peat layers.

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Characterization of peat deposit using ground penetrating radar: Survey experiments and data interpretation

IOP Conference Series Earth and Environmental Science ◽

10.1088/1755-1315/928/1/012011 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 928 (1) ◽

pp. 012011

Author(s):

A A Sinyutkina

Keyword(s):

Accumulation Rate ◽

Spatial Differentiation ◽

Data Interpretation ◽

Peat Deposit ◽

Swamp Forest ◽

Peat Accumulation ◽

Raised Bogs ◽

Peat Deposits ◽

Zone Of Influence ◽

Ground Penetrating

Abstract The paper deals with the possibilities of different wave frequency antennae applications for estimation of the depth of peat deposits and detection of peat layers with different physical characteristics. We employed a GPR system “OKO-2” (“Logical systems”, Russia) with 250 MHz, 700 MHz, and 1700 MHz shielded antennae. The surveys were conducted in 2017–2019 within the pristine and drained raised bogs and swamp forest in the south taiga subzone of Western Siberia to assess the spatial differentiation of the peat deposit and the modern peat accumulation rate within drained bogs. The peculiarities of field surveying, GPR data processing and interpretation are shown. Based on GPR data analysis the influence zone of Bakchar bog and modern peat accumulation within drained bogs were assessed. We noted that the Bakchar bog has a vast zone of influence reaching 700 m from the bog border where peat accumulation is observed. The modern peat accumulation is observed within Bakchar the bog. Drained sites of Ust-Bakchar bog are characterised by the absent peat accumulation or degradation of the peat deposits.

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Specific features of the structure of oligotrophic peatlands in the Arctic ecoregions

10.5194/egusphere-egu2020-2881 ◽

2020 ◽

Author(s):

Svetlana Selyanina ◽

Tamara Ponomareva

Keyword(s):

Snow Cover ◽

The Arctic ◽

Cellular Structures ◽

Plant Residues ◽

Peat Bogs ◽

Botanical Composition ◽

Sphagnum Mosses ◽

Peat Deposits ◽

Subarctic Climate ◽

Continental Climate

The ecological functions of bog ecosystems and their resistance to external influences are largely determined by the structure and chemical composition of peat.The structure of thick peat deposits of oligotrophic bogs typical for the west of the Arctic ecoregion of Russia is studied.&#160; The investigated peatlands are affected by the seas of the Arctic Ocean (the White and Barents).&#160; Bog massifs in the continental climate zone without marine influence outside the Arctic territories were studied for comparison purposes. The studied bog natural complexes all belong to the oligotrophic type, are similar in structure to the deposit profile, have a peat layer of the comparable thickness and a similar homogeneous botanical composition. The peat of all studied bogs is characterized by a low degree of decomposition over the entire depth of the profile (not more than 15-20%).The degree of decomposition, the botanical composition and the structure of the samples was studied by transmitted-light-microscopy. Fractionation was carried out by elutriation on sieves with a mesh size of 100 &#956;m and 250 &#956;m.The macrostructure of the studied peat bogs is formed by the undecomposed and weakly decomposed residues of peat-forming plants - mainly sphagnum mosses mixed with cotton-grass in certain layers. Analysis of peat samples from the Arctic ecoregion showed a high degree of grinding of sphagnum moss residues without visible signs of biochemical disturbance of cellular structures. This feature is most noticeable when considering the fraction of 100-250 &#956;m, where particles of such plant residues are concentrated. Leaves of sphagnum mosses in peat samples from the Arctic maritime territories are broken, but the cellular structures retain their integrity. In peat samples from bogs of the continental climatic zone, this phenomenon is not observed. Plant residues retain their integrity quite well, both in the upper and lower layers, and the fraction of 100-250 &#956;m is composed of undisturbed leaves of sphagnum mosses.The revealed specific nature of defragmentation of plant residues in the conditions of oligotrophic bog massifs of the Arctic ecoregion can be explained by the freezing-thawing cycles during the formation of a stable snow cover. In the conditions of a maritime subarctic climate, a stable snow cover is formed for a long period in the multiple transitions of air and soil temperatures through the zero-temperature mark. The thickness of the snow cover under the influence of winds in the open spaces of the bogs can decrease to the minimum values. The noted structural features are traced throughout the depth of the deposit. However, increased content of physically destroyed particles of sphagnum mosses in the upper horizons of the peat deposit in the maritime subarctic climate is observed, which may well be associated with global warming and an increase in freezing-thawing cycles.The obtained results require confirmation in the framework of model experiments both in the conditions of a mesocosm and laboratory. Besides, the extensive comparative studies on similar peat deposits in a maritime and continental climate must be made.

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Urinary stone composition analysis and clinical characterization of 1520 patients in central China

Scientific Reports ◽

10.1038/s41598-021-85723-3 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 11 (1) ◽

Author(s):

Daling Zhang ◽

Songchao Li ◽

Zhengguo Zhang ◽

Ningyang Li ◽

Xiang Yuan ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Calcium Oxalate ◽

Urinary Stone ◽

Geographic Region ◽

Central China ◽

Urinary Stones ◽

Composition Analysis ◽

Stone Composition ◽

Calcium Oxalate Stones ◽

Significant Difference ◽

Lower Urinary

AbstractA total of 1520 patients with urinary stones from central China were collected and analysed by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy between October 1, 2016 and December 31, 2019. For all patients, age, sex, comorbidities, stone location, laboratory examination and geographic region were collected. The most common stone component was calcium oxalate (77.5%), followed by calcium phosphate (8.7%), infection stone (7.6%), uric acid (UA) stone (5.3%)and cystine (0.9%). The males had more calcium oxalate stones (p < 0.001), while infection stone and cystine stones occurred more frequently in females (p < 0.001). The prevalence peak occurred at 41–60 years in both men and women. UA stones occurred frequently in patients with lower urinary pH (p < 0.001), while neutral urine or alkaline urine (p < 0.001) and urinary infection (p < 0.001) were more likely to be associated with infection stone stones. Patients with high levels of serum creatinine were more likely to develop UA stones (p < 0.001). The proportion of UA stones in diabetics was higher (p < 0.001), and the incidence of hypertension was higher in patients with UA stones (p < 0.001). Compared to the other types, more calcium oxalate stones were detected in the kidneys and ureters (p < 0.001), whereas struvite stones were more frequently observed in the lower urinary tract (p = 0.001). There was no significant difference in stone composition across the Qinling-Huaihe line in central China except UA stones, which were more frequently observed in patients south of the line (p < 0.001).

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The impact of image and performance enhancing drugs on bi-ventricular structure and function in strength-trained athletes and the association to fat-free mass

European Journal of Preventive Cardiology ◽

10.1093/eurjpc/zwab061.381 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 28 (Supplement_1) ◽

Author(s):

B Morrison ◽

N Chester ◽

R Mcgregor-Cheers ◽

G Kleinnibbelink ◽

C Johnson ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Allometric Scaling ◽

Strain Imaging ◽

Fat Free Mass ◽

Composition Analysis ◽

Lv Mass ◽

Significant Difference ◽

And Performance ◽

Performance Enhancing Drugs ◽

The Impact ◽

Performance Enhancing

Abstract Funding Acknowledgements Type of funding sources: Private grant(s) and/or Sponsorship. Main funding source(s): Canadian Institute of Health Research Michael Smith Foreign Study Supplement Background Image and performance enhancing drugs (IPED) cause cardiac enlargement and dysfunction. Previous work has not assessed impact of user status (current [CU] vs. past [PU]) or allometric scaling cardiac dimensions for individual differences in fat-free mass (FFM). Purpose To investigate CU and PU of IPED and allometric scaling on LV and RV remodeling in strength-trained athletes. Methods Thirty-four (29 ± 6 years; 82% male) strength-trained athletes were recruited. Fourteen were CU, 9 PU and 11 non-users (NU) of IPEDs. Participants underwent bioelectric impedance body composition analysis, IPED and training questionnaire and 2D echocardiography with strain imaging. All structural data was allometrically scaled to FFM according to the laws of geometric similarity. Results CU and PU had significantly higher FFM compared to NU (82.4 ± 10.1 kg vs. 72.0 ± 6.3 kg vs. 58.2 ± 14.0 kg). Absolute values of all RV and LV size were larger between CU and NU. LV mean wall thickness (MWT) was larger in CU compared to PU but there were no differences between PU and NU. Allometric scaling eliminated all differences with exception of LV mass and LVMWT. LVEF was significantly lower in CU and PU compared to NU (55 ± 3 vs. 57 ± 4 vs. 61 ± 4) whilst LV GLS was lower in CU compared to PU and NU and LV GCS was lower in CU compared to NU but not PU. There was no significant difference between groups for RV functional indices. Conclusion Strength-trained athletes currently using IPEDs have bi-ventricular enlargement as well as reduced LV function. Allometric scaling highlights that increased size is partially associated with a larger FFM, with exception of LVMWT which is independently increased through IPED use. PUs demonstrate reverse structural remodeling whilst functional differences partially remain. CU PU NU RVD1 (mm) 45 ± 5* 43 ± 6 37 ± 6 Scaled RVD1 (mm/kg^0.33) 10.5 ± 0.9 10.4 ± 1.5 9.7 ± 1.0 LVd (mm) 58 ± 7* 55 ± 4 50 ± 4 Scaled LVd (mm/kg^0.33) 13.4 ± 1.2 13.3 ± 0.7 13.1 ± 0.6 MWT (mm) 10 ± 1*” 8 ± 1 8 ± 1 Scaled MWT (mm/kg^0.33) 2.3 ± 0.2*” 2.0 ± 0.1 2.0 ± 0.2 LVEDV (ml) 169 ± 42* 135 ± 28 116 ± 28 Scaled LVEDV (ml/kg) 2.0 ± 0.4 1.9 ± 0.3 2.0 ± 0.2 LV Mass (g) 255 ± 85*” 179 ± 30 137 ± 40 LV mass index (g/kg) 3.1 ± 0.8* 2.5 ± 0.3 2.4 ± 0.4 * CU and NU “ CU and PU ^ PU and NU Abstract Figure. Myocardial strain imaging

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Crystallization of simonkolleite (Zn5Cl2(OH)8 ∙ H2O) in powder samples prepared for mineral composition analysis by quantitative X-ray diffraction (QXRD)

Nafta-Gaz ◽

10.18668/ng.2021.05.02 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 77 (5) ◽

pp. 293-298

Author(s):

Urszula Zagórska ◽

◽

Sylwia Kowalska ◽

Keyword(s):

Quantitative Analysis ◽

Internal Standard ◽

Mineralogical Composition ◽

Hydrocarbon Exploration ◽

Composition Analysis ◽

Internal Standard Method ◽

X Ray Diffraction ◽

Method Error ◽

X Ray ◽

Significant Difference

The analysis of mineralogical composition by quantitative X-ray diffraction (QXRD) is one of the standard research methods used in hydrocarbon exploration. In order to improve it and to obtain better results, the methodology of quantitative analysis used at Well Logging Department is being periodically (more or less) modified. After the introduction of the improvements, comparative analyses were performed on archival samples. Reflections from an unidentified phase which did not occur in the tested Rotliegend sandstone samples were noticed on X-ray diffractograms of archival samples. Reflections of a mineral called simonkolleite were identified in the X-ray diffraction database. Chemically it is a hydrated zinc chloride of the formula: Zn5Cl2(OH)8 × H2O. Analysis of the composition of samples in which simonkolleite crystallised, indicated that the mineral is being formed in the result of the slow reaction of zinc oxide with halite (NaCl) and water vapour. An attempt was made to determine the influence of the presence of this mineral on the results of the quantitative analysis of mineralogical composition. The above methodology was applied on a group of ten samples. The results of the quantitative analysis conducted for archival samples stored with added zincite standard containing simonkolleite and for new, freshly grinded (without artifact) samples were compared. The comparison of the obtained results showed a slight influence of this mineral on the quantitative composition of the remaining components. The difference between the results usually did not exceed the method error. At the same time a significant difference in the calculated content of the internal standard was noted – on average 1% less in archival than in new samples. This shows that the reaction occurring in the archival samples will affect the evaluation of the quality of the obtained quantitative analysis, at the same time excluding the possibility of determining the rock’s amorphous substance content with the internal standard method.

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Artificial teeth: evaluation of wear resistance, microhardness and composition

RGO - Revista Gaúcha de Odontologia ◽

10.1590/1981-863720150003000022893 ◽

2015 ◽

Vol 63 (3) ◽

pp. 263-270 ◽

Cited By ~ 1

Author(s):

Matheus GRANDO ◽

Lívia Muniz PACHECO ◽

Daniela Maffei BOTEGA ◽

Luciana Mayumi HIRAKATA ◽

Juliana Balbinot HILGERT

Keyword(s):

Wear Resistance ◽

Acrylic Resin ◽

Knoop Hardness ◽

Composition Analysis ◽

Bonferroni Correction ◽

Hardness Tester ◽

Significant Difference ◽

Microhardness Testing ◽

Wear Evaluation ◽

Artificial Teeth

Objective: To evaluate the Knoop hardness, composition, and wear resistance of acrylic-resin artificial teeth exposed to mechanical toothbrushing. Methods: Artificial teeth from three commercial brands - Biotone, Trilux, and Soluut PX - were used. From each brand, 10 teeth were selected for wear evaluation after mechanical brushing, 10 for microhardness testing, and 5 for composition analysis. Specimens underwent 55,000 brushing cycles, under a 200-g load and at a frequency of 250 cycles per minute, using a soft-bristled toothbrush (IndicatorPlus 30, Oral-B) soaked in a 1:1 toothpaste/water slurry (Oral B Pró Saúde). Microhardness testing was performed using a 25-g load for 15 seconds in an HMV-2 hardness tester (Shimadzu). The composition of teeth from different brands was determined by scanning electron microscopy with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM/EDS) (Jeol JSM 5800). Results: Wear results after mechanical brushing were compared by means of the paired t-test, whereas those obtained in microhardness testing were compared by ANOVA with Bonferroni correction. There was no statistically significant difference between brands in either trial. Conclusion: Composition analysis revealed that all of the artificial teeth analyzed contain carbon and oxygen. Trilux and Soluut PX brand teeth also contain silicon; however, the presence of filler particles did not result in increased resistance.

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Lipolysis and oxidation of lipids during egg storage at different temperatures

Czech Journal of Food Sciences ◽

10.17221/174/2016-cjfs ◽

2017 ◽

Vol 35 (No. 3) ◽

pp. 229-235 ◽

Cited By ~ 5

Author(s):

Qingling Wang ◽

Guofeng Jin ◽

Ning Wang ◽

Yongguo Jin ◽

Meihu Ma ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Lipase Activity ◽

Storage Temperature ◽

Egg Yolk ◽

Lipid Profiles ◽

Composition Analysis ◽

C Storage ◽

Physicochemical Index ◽

Significant Difference ◽

Different Temperatures ◽

Egg Storage

The aim of this study was to investigate lipolysis and lipid oxidation of stored eggs at different temperatures (4 and 22°C) by evaluating the changes in physicochemical index, lipid profiles, enzymatic activity, and oxidative index. The results showed that the changes in physicochemical index were more significant at 22°C than at 4°C. Weight loss, moisture content, and pH of egg yolk increased significantly (P < 0.05), whereas the yolk index decreased during storage. However, there was no significant difference in lipid profiles between 4 and 22°C storage temperature. The lipid composition analysis demonstrated that lipid hydrolysis took place during egg storage and resulted in a marked decrease of PL and increase of FFA. It was also found that the content of phosphatidylcholine (PC), phosphatidylethanolamine (PE), and phosphatidylinositol (PI) decreased significantly during storage. The correlation analysis showed that the lipid degradation is significantly positively related to lipase activity (P < 0.05), and the marked changes of lipid fractions are results of both hydrolysis and oxidation. It can be concluded that the egg physicochemical index and lipase activity were greatly influenced by temperature during storage, but the yolk lipid stability was not significantly influenced by storage temperature.

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Preservation of Fat-free Mass after Bariatric Surgery: A Comparison of Malabsorptive and Restrictive Procedures

The American Surgeon ◽

10.1177/000313481508100821 ◽

2015 ◽

Vol 81 (8) ◽

pp. 812-815 ◽

Cited By ~ 13

Author(s):

Jason Wells ◽

Megan Miller ◽

Brittonni Perry ◽

Joseph A. Ewing ◽

Allyson L. Hale ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Protein Intake ◽

Analysis Data ◽

Fat Free Mass ◽

Composition Analysis ◽

Vertical Sleeve Gastrectomy ◽

Significant Weight Loss ◽

Restrictive Procedures ◽

Significant Difference ◽

The Difference ◽

Malabsorptive Procedures

The Roux-en-Y gastric bypass (RYGB) has been shown to cause significant weight loss. However, fat-free mass (FFM) is often lost with this rapid weight change. It is suggested that the loss of FFM is minimized with restrictive-only procedures, such as the vertical sleeve gastrectomy (VSG), when compared with malabsorptive surgery. The purpose of the study was to determine the difference in the postoperative loss of FFM between RYBG and VSG patients. We reviewed all patients who underwent RYGB or VSG between May 2012 and January 2013. Patients were evaluated one month before their procedure and 12 months after for comparison of results. Preoperative and postoperative body analysis data were procured using a body composition analysis device. Within the study period, 33 patients underwent a RYGB procedure and 20 patients a VSG. After 12 months, RYGB patients had an average increase of 38.15 per cent in their proportion of FFM, whereas VSG patients had an average FFM increase of 22.09 per cent, a statically significant difference ( P = 0.004). The RYGB helps preserve overall FFM as compared with the VSG. These findings are unexpected because malabsorptive procedures require increased protein intake, resulting in a stronger likelihood of inadequate protein intake, which may lead to protein malnutrition.

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Effects of Hydroxyurea Administration on the Body Weight, Body Composition and Exercise Performance of Patients with Sickle-Cell Anaemia

Clinical Science ◽

10.1042/cs0920481 ◽

1997 ◽

Vol 92 (5) ◽

pp. 481-486 ◽

Cited By ~ 26

Author(s):

A. C. Hackney ◽

W. Hezier ◽

T. P. Gulledge ◽

S. Jones ◽

D. Strayhorn ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Body Composition ◽

Body Weight ◽

Weight Gain ◽

Sickle Cell ◽

Sickle Cell Anaemia ◽

The Body ◽

Aerobic Performance ◽

Composition Analysis ◽

Anaerobic Performance ◽

Significant Difference

1. As an ancillary study carried out during the recently completed Multicenter Study of Hydroxyurea, we examined the effect of hydroxyurea on the body weight, body composition and exercise capacity of adult patients with sickle-cell anaemia. 2. The subjects received either hydroxyurea (six males and four females) or placebo (eight males and six females). Data for each subject were generated during four separate 24 h admissions to the General Clinical Research Center. These admissions occurred at baseline and then at 6, 12 and 18 months after the start of study drug (hydroxyurea or placebo) administration. During each admission, body composition was measured by using a dual X-ray absorptiometer, and exercise testing was performed by cycle ergometry. Anaerobic performance was assessed according to a ‘Wingate’ protocol (20 s at maximal intensity against a cycling resistance of 7.5% body weight). Aerobic performance was examined using a steady state submaximal exercise protocol (10 min cycling time). 3. At baseline, no significant difference in any parameter was found between the hydroxyurea- and placebo-treated groups. At 18 months, the hydroxy-urea-treated subjects exhibited an average weight gain of 3.16 kg. The mean weight gain in the placebo-treated subjects was 1.82 kg. Body composition analysis showed that the additional weight in both groups involved both lean and fat body mass components. In anaerobic performance, the subjects given hydroxyurea showed an increase in peak muscle power of 104.9 W. The placebo group also showed an increase, but theirs was a more modest gain of 57.7 W. The most marked improvement in anaerobic performance was observed in the hydroxyurea-treated men (P < 0.05). In aerobic performance, the hydroxyurea-treated subjects exhibited a decrease in peak heart rate response to a standardized workload of 15.2 beats/min, as compared with a decrease of only 4.3 beats/min in the placebo-treated patients. 4. Taken together, the overall weight gain, combined with increases in both anaerobic muscular performance and aerobic cardiovascular efficiency, provides objective data to support the subjective impression that hydroxyurea administration produces an improvement in the physical capacity of patients with sickle-cell anaemia.

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Dissociable Effects of Emotional Stimuli on Perception and Decision-Making for Time

10.1101/2020.04.24.059717 ◽

2020 ◽

Author(s):

Keri Gladhill ◽

Giovanna Mioni ◽

Martin Wiener

Keyword(s):

Decision Making ◽

Time Perception ◽

Accumulation Rate ◽

Late Positive Component ◽

N170 Component ◽

Bisection Point ◽

Significant Difference ◽

The Face ◽

Temporal Bisection Task ◽

Negative Face

AbstractPrevious research has demonstrated that negative emotional faces dilate time perception, however, the mechanisms underlying this phenomenon are not fully understood. Previous attempts focus on the pacemaker-accumulator model of time perception, which includes a clock, memory, and decision-making stage, wherein emotion affects one of these stages; possibly by increasing pacemaker rate via arousal, increasing accumulation rate via attention, or by biasing decision-making. To further investigate the stage(s) that emotion is affecting time perception we conducted a visual temporal bisection task with sub-second intervals while recording 64-channel electroencephalogram (EEG). To separate the influence of face and timing responses the temporal stimulus was preceded and followed by a face stimulus displaying a neutral or negative expression creating three trial-types: Neg→Neut, Neut→Neg, or Neut→Neut. The data revealed a leftward shift in bisection point (BP) in Neg→Neut and Neut→Neg suggesting an overestimation of time. Neurally, we found the face-responsive N170 component was larger for negative faces and the N1 and contingent negative variation (CNV) were larger when preceded by a negative face. We also found an interaction effect between condition and response for the late positive component of timing (LPCt) and a significant difference between response (short/long) in the neutral condition. We conclude that a preceding negative face affects the clock stage leading to more pulses being accumulated, either through attention or arousal, as indexed by a larger N1, CNV, and N170; whereas viewing the negative face second biased decision-making leading to “short” responses being less likely, as evidenced by the LPCt.

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