High-Intensity Exercise Training Protects The Brain Against Autoimmune Neuroinflammation: Regulation of Microglial Redox and Pro-Inflammatory Functions

2020 ◽  
Author(s):  
Yifat Zaychik ◽  
Nina Fainstein ◽  
Olga Touloumi ◽  
Yehuda Goldberg ◽  
Liel Hamdi ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
T Cells ◽  
Exercise Training ◽  
High Intensity ◽  
Inflammatory Responses ◽  
Ex Vivo ◽  
Treadmill Running ◽  
Clinical Severity ◽  
Continuous Training ◽  
Neuroprotective Effects ◽  
Ros Formation

Abstract Background: Exercise training induces beneficial effects on neurodegenerative diseases, and specifically on multiple sclerosis (MS) and its model experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). However, it is unclear whether exercise training exerts direct protective effects on the central nervous system (CNS), nor are the mechanisms of neuroprotection fully understood. In this study, we investigated the direct neuroprotective effects of high-intensity continuous training (HICT) against the development of autoimmune neuroinflammation and the role of resident microglia.Methods: We used the transfer EAE model to examine the direct effects of training on the CNS. Healthy mice performed HICT by treadmill running, followed by injection of encephalitogenic proteolipid (PLP)- reactive T-cells to induce EAE. EAE severity was assessed clinically and pathologically. Brain microglia from sedentary and HICT healthy mice, as well as 5-days post EAE induction (prior to onset of disease) were analyzed ex vivo for reactive oxygen species (ROS) and nitric oxide (NO) formation, mRNA expression of M1/M2 markers and neurotrophic factors, and secretion of cytokines and chemokines. Results: Transfer of encephalitogenic T-cells into HICT mice resulted in milder EAE, compared to sedentary mice, as indicated by reduced clinical severity, attenuated T-cell and neurotoxic macrophage/microglial infiltration, and reduced loss of myelin and axons. In healthy mice, HICT reduced the number of resident microglia without affecting their profile. Isolated microglia from HICT mice after transfer of encephalitogenic T-cells exhibited reduced ROS formation and released less IL-6 and monocyte chemoattractant protein in response to PLP-stimulation.Conclusions: HICT protects the CNS against autoimmune neuroinflammation by reducing microglial-derived ROS formation, neurotoxicity and pro-inflammatory responses involved in propagation of autoimmune neuroinflammation.

scholarly journals High-Intensity Exercise Training Protects the Brain Against Autoimmune Neuroinflammation: Regulation of Microglial Redox and Pro-inflammatory Functions

2021 ◽  
Vol 15 ◽  
Author(s):  
Yifat Zaychik ◽  
Nina Fainstein ◽  
Olga Touloumi ◽  
Yehuda Goldberg ◽  
Liel Hamdi ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
T Cells ◽  
Exercise Training ◽  
High Intensity ◽  
Inflammatory Responses ◽  
Ex Vivo ◽  
Critical Role ◽  
Treadmill Running ◽  
Clinical Severity ◽  
Ros Formation

Background: Exercise training induces beneficial effects on neurodegenerative diseases, and specifically on multiple sclerosis (MS) and it’s model experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). However, it is unclear whether exercise training exerts direct protective effects on the central nervous system (CNS), nor are the mechanisms of neuroprotection fully understood. In this study, we investigated the direct neuroprotective effects of high-intensity continuous training (HICT) against the development of autoimmune neuroinflammation and the role of resident microglia.Methods: We used the transfer EAE model to examine the direct effects of training on the CNS. Healthy mice performed HICT by treadmill running, followed by injection of encephalitogenic proteolipid (PLP)-reactive T-cells to induce EAE. EAE severity was assessed clinically and pathologically. Brain microglia from sedentary (SED) and HICT healthy mice, as well as 5-days post EAE induction (before the onset of disease), were analyzed ex vivo for reactive oxygen species (ROS) and nitric oxide (NO) formation, mRNA expression of M1/M2 markers and neurotrophic factors, and secretion of cytokines and chemokines.Results: Transfer of encephalitogenic T-cells into HICT mice resulted in milder EAE, compared to sedentary mice, as indicated by reduced clinical severity, attenuated T-cell, and neurotoxic macrophage/microglial infiltration, and reduced loss of myelin and axons. In healthy mice, HICT reduced the number of resident microglia without affecting their profile. Isolated microglia from HICT mice after transfer of encephalitogenic T-cells exhibited reduced ROS formation and released less IL-6 and monocyte chemoattractant protein (MCP) in response to PLP-stimulation.Conclusions: These findings point to the critical role of training intensity in neuroprotection. HICT protects the CNS against autoimmune neuroinflammation by reducing microglial-derived ROS formation, neurotoxicity, and pro-inflammatory responses involved in the propagation of autoimmune neuroinflammation.

Higher mitochondrial fatty acid oxidation following intermittent versus continuous endurance exercise training

1998 ◽  
Vol 76 (9) ◽  
pp. 891-894 ◽  
Author(s):  
P D Chilibeck ◽  
G J Bell ◽  
R P Farrar ◽  
T P Martin
Keyword(s):  
Fatty Acid ◽  
Exercise Training ◽  
Fatty Acid Oxidation ◽  
Endurance Exercise ◽  
High Intensity ◽  
Treadmill Running ◽  
Acid Oxidation ◽  
Interval Exercise ◽  
Endurance Exercise Training ◽  
Mitochondrial Fatty Acid

It has been well documented that skeletal muscle fatty acid oxidation can be elevated by continuous endurance exercise training. However, it remains questionable whether similar adaptations can be induced with intermittent interval exercise training. This study was undertaken to directly compare the rates of fatty acid oxidation in isolated subsarcolemmal (SS) and intermyofibrillar (IMF) mitochondria following these different exercise training regimes. Mitochondria were isolated from the gastrocnemius-plantaris muscles of male Sprague-Dawley rats following exercise training 6 days per week for 12 weeks. Exercise training consisted of either continuous, submaximal, endurance treadmill running (n = 10) or intermittent, high intensity, interval running (n = 10). Both modes of training enhanced the oxidation of palmityl-carnitine-malate in both mitochondrial populations (p < 0.05). However, the increase associated with the intermittent, high intensity exercise training was significantly greater than that achieved with the continuous exercise training (p < 0.05). Also, the increases associated with the IMF mitochondria were greater than the SS mitochondria (p < 0.05). These data suggest that high intensity, intermittent interval exercise training is more effective for stimulation of fatty acid oxidation than continuous submaximal exercise training and that this adaptation occurs preferentially within IMF mitochondria.Key words: muscle, subsarcolemmal mitochondria, intermyofibrillar mitochondria.

scholarly journals Exercise prevents Western diet-associated erectile dysfunction and coronary artery endothelial dysfunction: response to acute apocynin and sepiapterin treatment

2013 ◽  
Vol 305 (4) ◽  
pp. R423-R434 ◽  
Author(s):  
Justin D. La Favor ◽  
Ethan J. Anderson ◽  
Jillian T. Dawkins ◽  
Robert C. Hickner ◽  
Christopher J. Wingard
Keyword(s):  
Erectile Dysfunction ◽  
Coronary Artery ◽  
Exercise Training ◽  
Erectile Function ◽  
Dietary Intervention ◽  
Ex Vivo ◽  
Control Diet ◽  
Western Diet ◽  
Treadmill Running ◽  
Aerobic Exercise Training

The aim of this study was to investigate aerobic exercise training as a means to prevent erectile dysfunction (ED) and coronary artery disease (CAD) development associated with inactivity and diet-induced obesity. Male Sprague-Dawley rats were fed a Western diet (WD) or a control diet (CD) for 12 wk. Subgroups within each diet remained sedentary (Sed) or participated in aerobic interval treadmill running throughout the dietary intervention. Erectile function was evaluated under anesthesia by measuring the mean arterial pressure and intracavernosal pressure in response to electrical field stimulation of the cavernosal nerve, in the absence or presence of either apocynin, an NADPH oxidase inhibitor, or sepiapterin, a tetrahydrobiopterin precursor. Coronary artery endothelial function (CAEF) was evaluated ex vivo with cumulative doses of ACh applied to preconstricted segments of the left anterior descending coronary artery. CAEF was assessed in the absence or presence of apocynin or sepiapterin. Erectile function ( P < 0.0001) and CAEF ( P < 0.001) were attenuated in WD-Sed. Exercise preserved erectile function ( P < 0.0001) and CAEF ( P < 0.05) within the WD. Erectile function ( P < 0.01) and CAEF ( P < 0.05) were augmented by apocynin only in WD-Sed, while sepiapterin ( P < 0.05) only augmented erectile function in WD-Sed. These data demonstrate that a chronic WD induces impairment in erectile function and CAEF that are commonly partially reversible by apocynin, whereas sepiapterin treatment exerted differential functional effects between the two vascular beds. Furthermore, exercise training may be a practical means of preventing diet-induced ED and CAD development.

scholarly journals Exercise training in heart failure: role, prescription and program

2018 ◽  
Vol 38 (4) ◽  
pp. 226-233
Author(s):  
Raymond Pranata ◽  
Emir Yonas ◽  
Bambang B. Siswanto ◽  
Budhi S. Purwowiyoto
Keyword(s):  
Quality Of Life ◽  
Heart Failure ◽  
Exercise Training ◽  
High Intensity ◽  
Exercise Prescription ◽  
Interval Training ◽  
High Intensity Interval Training ◽  
Continuous Training ◽  
High Intensity Interval

Heart failure is one of the most common cardiovascular diseases and is a final pathway of various cardiac pathologies. Exercise intolerance and dyspnea accompanied by dete­riorating quality of life are common issues in those suffering from heart failure and may persist despite optimal medical therapy. Exercise training in heart failure theoretically helps to slow down the deterioration of the heart by antagonizing excess neurohormonal activity in heart failure, which translated into better functional capacity and quality of life. Exercise prescription is a mean of assessing and interpreting clinical information and applying the principles of training to develop an appropriate regimen and should be tailored to patient’s clinical condition. Resistance training improves peak VO2, exercise capacity and quality of life in heart failure patients. Both continuous and interval exercise training are linked to better quality of life despite ambiguous results in mortality. The aim of this article is to discuss the benefits of exercise in patients with congestive heart failure, exercise prescription, and exercise program including high-intensity interval training, continuous training and resistance exercise.   Abstrak Gagal jantung adalah salah satu penyakit kardiovaskular yang paling sering ditemui dan merupakan akhir daripada banyak jenis patologi jantung. Intoleransi olahraga dan sesak nafas disertai dengan memburuknya kualitas hidup merupakan beberapa masalah yang sering dihadapi oleh pasien gagal jantung, meskipun telah diberikan pengobatan yang optimal. Latihan olahraga pada gagal jantung secara teoritis dapat memperlambat menurunnya fungsi jantung dengan melawan aktivitas neurohormonal yang meningkat pada kondisi gagal jantung yang dicerminkan dengan kapasitas fungsional dan kualitas hidup yang lebih baik. Preskripsi olahraga meliputi pemeriksaan dan interpretasi dari informasi klinis dan aplikasi dari prinsip latihan untuk membentuk regimen yang sesuai dan harus di sesuaikan dengan keadaan klinis pasien. Latihan beban memperbaiki fungsi VO2 puncak, kapasitas olahraga dan kualitas hidup pada pasien dengan gagal jantung. Kedua metode olahraga baik secara kontinu ataupun interval dihubungkan dengan kualitas hidup yang lebih baik meskipun masih ambigu dalam hal mortalitas. Tujuan artikel ini adalah membahas manfaat latihan fisik pada pasien dengan gagal jantung kongestif, cara peresepan serta membahas program high intensity interval training, continuous training serta latihan beban.

scholarly journals Elevated coinhibitory molecule TIGIT mediates T cell exhaustion in septic patients

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
Yini Sun ◽  
Renyu Ding ◽  
Yukun Chang ◽  
Jiuming Li ◽  
Xiaochun Ma
Keyword(s):  
T Cells ◽  
T Cell ◽  
Crucial Role ◽  
Cell Function ◽  
Inflammatory Responses ◽  
Ex Vivo ◽  
Healthy Controls ◽  
T Cell Exhaustion ◽  
Cell Exhaustion

Abstract Background: Sepsis-induced T cell exhaustion that is characterized by upregulated coinhibitory molecules and decreased cytokines release plays a crucial role in the immunosuppression during sepsis. Although PD-1 has shown a promising target to interfere with T cells dysfunction, the role of other coinhibitory receptors in sepsis remains largely elusive. Recently, it has been demonstrated that the coinhibitory molecule TIGIT more reliably identified exhausted T cells than PD-1. The aim of the study was to identify the expression of TIGIT on lymphocytes and the crucial role of TIGIT in modulating T cell function in septic patients. Methods: Twenty-five patients with sepsis and seventeen healthy controls were prospectively enrolled. Peripheral blood was obtained from septic patients within 24 hours after diagnosis of sepsis, as were healthy controls. TIGIT and other coinhibitory/costimulatory molecules expression on lymphocyte subsets was quantitated by flow cytometry. The relationship between TIGIT expression and clinical parameters was simultaneously evaluated. The function T cell from septic patients was assayed via stimulated cytokine secretion. Ex vivo functional assays were also conducted.Results: In the early stage of sepsis, patients exhibited higher levels of TIGIT on T cells relative to healthy donors, especially in the septic shock patients. Elevated frequencies of TIGIT + T cells positively correlated with the severity of organ failure and inflammatory responses in septic patients. TIGIT + T cells expressed higher levels of PD-1 and lower CD226. Further, elevated expression of TIGIT inhibited the release of cytokines including TNF, IFN-γ and IL-2 by CD4 + and CD8 + T cells. Strikingly, ex vivo blockade of TIGIT using anti-TIGIT antibody restored the frequencies of cytokine-producing T cells. Conclusions: These data illustrate TIGIT as a novel marker of exhausted T cells and suggest TIGIT may be a novel immunotherapeutic target during sepsis.

scholarly journals Exercise training before cardiac-specific Serca2 disruption attenuates the decline in cardiac function in mice

2010 ◽  
Vol 109 (6) ◽  
pp. 1749-1755 ◽  
Author(s):  
Madelene Ericsson ◽  
Cecilie Sjåland ◽  
Kristin B. Andersson ◽  
Ivar Sjaastad ◽  
Geir Christensen ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Exercise Training ◽  
Cardiac Function ◽  
High Intensity ◽  
Gene Disruption ◽  
Heart Function ◽  
Interval Training ◽  
Treadmill Running ◽  
Favorable Effect ◽  
Exercise Training Program ◽  
High Intensity Interval

In the heart, function of the sarco(endo)plasmic Ca2+-ATPase (SERCA2) is closely linked to contractility, cardiac function, and aerobic fitness. SERCA2 function can be increased by high-intensity interval training, whereas reduced SERCA2 abundance is associated with impaired cardiac function. The working hypothesis was, therefore, that exercise training before cardiomyocyte-specific disruption of the Serca2 gene would delay the onset of cardiac dysfunction in mice. Before Serca2 gene disruption by tamoxifen, untreated SERCA2 knockout mice ( Serca2flox/flox Tg-αMHC-MerCreMer; S2KO), and SERCA2 FF control mice ( Serca2flox/flox, S2FF) were exercise trained by high-intensity interval treadmill running for 6 wk. Both genotypes responded to training, with comparable increases in maximal oxygen uptake (V̇o2max; 17%), left ventricle weight (15%), and maximal running speed (40%). After exercise training, cardiac-specific Serca2 gene disruption was induced in both exercise trained and sedentary S2KO mice. In trained S2KO, cardiac function decreased less rapidly than in sedentary S2KO. V̇o2max remained higher in trained S2KO the first 15 days after gene disruption. Six weeks after Serca2 disruption, cardiac output was higher in trained compared with sedentary S2KO mice. An exercise-training program attenuates the decline in cardiac performance induced by acute cardiac Serca2 gene disruption, indicating that mechanisms other than SERCA2 contribute to the favorable effect of exercise training.

scholarly journals Suboptimal SARS-CoV-2-specific CD8+ T-cell response associated with the prominent HLA-A*02:01 phenotype

2020 ◽  
Author(s):  
Jennifer R Habel ◽  
Thi H O Nguyen ◽  
Carolien E van de Sandt ◽  
Jennifer A Juno ◽  
Priyanka Chaurasia ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
T Cells ◽  
T Cell ◽  
Cd8 T Cells ◽  
Ex Vivo ◽  
Cd8 T Cell ◽  
Clinical Severity ◽  
Effector Memory ◽  
Cell Mediated Immunity ◽  
Cell Memory ◽  
Activation Markers

An improved understanding of human T-cell-mediated immunity in COVID-19 is important if we are to optimize therapeutic and vaccine strategies. Experience with influenza shows that infection primes CD8+ T-cell memory to shared peptides presented by common HLA types like HLA-A2. Following re-infection, cross-reactive CD8+ T-cells enhance recovery and diminish clinical severity. Stimulating peripheral blood mononuclear cells from COVID-19 convalescent patients with overlapping peptides from SARS-CoV-2 Spike, Nucleocapsid and Membrane proteins led to the clonal expansion of SARS-CoV-2-specific CD8+ and CD4+ T-cells in vitro, with CD4+ sets being typically robust. For CD8+ T-cells taken directly ex vivo, we identified two HLA-A*02:01-restricted SARS-CoV-2 epitopes, A2/S269-277 and A2/Orf1ab3183-3191. Using peptide-HLA tetramer enrichment, direct ex vivo assessment of the A2/S269+CD8+ and A2/Orf1ab3183+CD8+ populations indicated that the more prominent A2/S269+CD8+ set was detected at comparable frequency (1.3x10-5) in acute and convalescent HLA-A*02:01+ patients. But, while the numbers were higher than those found in uninfected HLA-A*02:01+ donors (2.5x10-6), they were low when compared with frequencies for influenza-specific (A2/M158) and EBV-specific (A2/BMLF1280) (1.38x10-4) populations. Phenotypic analysis ex vivo of A2/S269+CD8+ T-cells from COVID-19 convalescents showed that A2/S269+CD8+ T-cells were predominantly negative for the CD38, HLA-DR, PD-1 and CD71 activation markers, although the majority of total CD8+ T-cells were granzyme and/or perforin-positive. Furthermore, the bias towards naive, stem cell memory and central memory A2/S269+CD8+ T-cells rather than effector memory populations suggests that SARS-CoV2 infection may be compromising CD8+ T-cell activation. Priming with an appropriate vaccine may thus have great value for optimizing protective CD8+ T-cell immunity in COVID-19.

scholarly journals Effects of aerobic interval training and continuous training on cellular markers of endothelial integrity in coronary artery disease: a SAINTEX-CAD substudy

2015 ◽  
Vol 309 (11) ◽  
pp. H1876-H1882 ◽  
Author(s):  
Emeline M. Van Craenenbroeck ◽  
Geert Frederix ◽  
Nele Pattyn ◽  
Paul Beckers ◽  
Amaryllis H. Van Craenenbroeck ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
T Cells ◽  
Exercise Training ◽  
Endothelial Function ◽  
Interval Training ◽  
Peak Oxygen Consumption ◽  
Continuous Training ◽  
Aerobic Interval Training ◽  
Cellular Markers ◽  
Artery Disease ◽  
Angiogenic T Cells

In this large multicenter trial, we aimed to assess the effect of aerobic exercise training in stable coronary artery disease (CAD) patients on cellular markers of endothelial integrity and to examine their relation with improvement of endothelial function. Two-hundred CAD patients (left ventricular ejection fraction > 40%, 90% male, mean age 58.4 ± 9.1 yr) were randomized on a 1:1 base to a supervised 12-wk rehabilitation program of either aerobic interval training or aerobic continuous training on a bicycle. At baseline and after 12 wk, numbers of circulating CD34+/KDR+/CD45dim endothelial progenitor cells (EPCs), CD31+/CD3+/CXCR4+ angiogenic T cells, and CD31+/CD42b− endothelial microparticles (EMPs) were analyzed by flow cytometry. Endothelial function was assessed by flow-mediated dilation (FMD) of the brachial artery. After 12 wk of aerobic interval training or aerobic continuous training, numbers of circulating EPCs, angiogenic T cells, and EMPs were comparable with baseline levels. Whereas improvement in peak oxygen consumption was correlated to improvement in FMD (Pearson r = 0.17, P = 0.035), a direct correlation of baseline or posttraining EPCs, angiogenic T cells, and EMP levels with FMD was absent. Baseline EMPs related inversely to the magnitude of the increases in peak oxygen consumption (Spearman rho = −0.245, P = 0.027) and FMD (Spearman rho = −0.374, P = 0.001) following exercise training. In conclusion, endothelial function improvement in response to exercise training in patients with CAD did not relate to altered levels of EPCs and angiogenic T cells and/or a diminished shedding of EMPs into the circulation. EMP flow cytometry may be predictive of the increase in aerobic capacity and endothelial function.

scholarly journals Right ventricular metabolic adaptations to high-intensity interval and moderate-intensity continuous training in healthy middle-aged men

2016 ◽  
Vol 311 (3) ◽  
pp. H667-H675 ◽  
Author(s):  
Marja A. Heiskanen ◽  
Tuija Leskinen ◽  
Ilkka H. A. Heinonen ◽  
Eliisa Löyttyniemi ◽  
Jari-Joonas Eskelinen ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Exercise Training ◽  
Ejection Fraction ◽  
Right Ventricular ◽  
High Intensity ◽  
Moderate Intensity ◽  
Training Effect ◽  
Acid Uptake ◽  
Continuous Training ◽  
Metabolic Adaptations ◽  
High Intensity Interval

Despite the recent studies on structural and functional adaptations of the right ventricle (RV) to exercise training, adaptations of its metabolism remain unknown. We investigated the effects of short-term, high-intensity interval training (HIIT) and moderate-intensity continuous training (MICT) on RV glucose and fat metabolism. Twenty-eight untrained, healthy 40–55 yr-old-men were randomized into HIIT ( n = 14) and MICT ( n = 14) groups. Subjects performed six supervised cycle ergometer training sessions within 2 wk (HIIT session: 4–6 × 30 s all-out cycling/4-min recovery; MICT session: 40–60 min at 60% peak O2 uptake). Primary outcomes were insulin-stimulated RV glucose uptake (RVGU) and fasted state RV free fatty acid uptake (RVFFAU) measured by positron emission tomography. Secondary outcomes were changes in RV structure and function, determined by cardiac magnetic resonance. RVGU decreased after training (−22% HIIT, −12% MICT, P = 0.002 for training effect), but RVFFAU was not affected by the training ( P = 0.74). RV end-diastolic and end-systolic volumes, respectively, increased +5 and +7% for HIIT and +4 and +8% for MICT ( P = 0.002 and 0.005 for training effects, respectively), but ejection fraction mildly decreased (−2% HIIT, −4% MICT, P = 0.034 for training effect). RV mass and stroke volume remained unaltered. None of the observed changes differed between the training groups ( P > 0.12 for group × training interaction). Only 2 wk of physical training in previously sedentary subjects induce changes in RV glucose metabolism, volumes, and ejection fraction, which precede exercise-induced hypertrophy of RV. Listen to this article’s corresponding podcast at http://ajpheart.podbean.com/e/right-ventricular-metabolic-adaptations-to-exercise-training/ .

scholarly journals The Benefits of High Intensity Exercise on the Brain of a Drug Abuser

2018 ◽  
Vol 10 (6) ◽  
pp. 123 ◽  
Author(s):  
Daniel Cabral ◽  
Vagner Tavares ◽  
Kell da Costa ◽  
Paulo Nascimento ◽  
Heloiana Faro ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Drug Abuse ◽  
Exercise Training ◽  
Test Performance ◽  
High Intensity ◽  
Autonomic Control ◽  
High Intensity Exercise ◽  
Treadmill Running ◽  
Drug Abuser ◽  
Cognitive Test ◽  
Cardiac Autonomic Control

Chronic drug abuse has been shown to cause dysfunctions on the frontal lobe and affect cognition, cardiac autonomic control and psychosocial aspects. Despite physical exercise has been shown to improve cerebral functioning, the effects of a high intensity exercise training program needs to be further explored in a drug abuse condition. The patient was a 32-year-old male who has been an alcohol and crack/cocaine user for 20 years. The high intensity exercise training protocol consisted of four 30-second “all-out” bouts performed three times per week during four weeks. The participant had electroencephalographic (EEG) activity, cognition, cardiac autonomic control and psychosocial questionnaires evaluated before and after high intensity exercise training. Prefrontal cortex (PFC) oxygenation during an incremental running exercise test was also recorded. EEG topographical analysis revealed greater PFC activation during the cognitive test. Performance on the cognitive test was enhanced (l number of total errors and reaction time). Parasympathetic cardiac indices, including RMSSD, SDNN, Pnn50% and HF power increased by 77.4%, 83.3%, 57.7% and 293.2%, respectively. Sleep quality increased 23% and anxiety levels decreased 52.6%. Psychological and social domains increased 5.3% and 13.7%, respectively. In addition, incremental treadmill running time increased 12.5% and PFC oxyhemoglobin increased 228.2% at the beginning of the treadmill test, 305.4% at the middle and 359.4% at the end of the test. Thus, high intensity exercise training improved PFC functioning, cardiac autonomic control and psychological parameters. These results might indicate high intensity exercise as an alternative and non-pharmacological tool to help the rehabilitation of a drug abuser.

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