Genotyping and Virulence Analysis of Drug Resistant Clinical Klebsiella pneumoniae Isolates in Egypt

The purpose of this study was to identify Escherichia coli isolates in diarrhoeic and healthy rabbits in Tunisia and characterise their virulence and antibiotic resistance genes. In the 2014-2015 period, 60 faecal samples from diarrhoeic and healthy rabbits were collected from different breeding farms in Tunisia. Susceptibility to 14 antimicrobial agents was tested by disc diffusion method and the mechanisms of gene resistance were evaluated using polymerase chain reaction and sequencing methods. Forty E. coli isolates were recovered in selective media. High frequency of resistance to tetracycline (95%) was detected, followed by different levels of resistance to sulphonamide (72.5%), streptomycin (62.5%), trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (60%), nalidixic acid (32.5%), ampicillin (37.5%) and ticarcillin (35%). E. coli strains were susceptible to cefotaxime, ceftazidime and imipenem. Different variants of blaTEM, tet, sul genes were detected in most of the strains resistant to ampicillin, tetracycline and sulphonamide, respectively. The presence of class 1 integron was studied in 29 sulphonamide-resistant E. coli strains from which 15 harboured class 1 integron with four different arrangements of gene cassettes, dfrA17+aadA5 (n=9), dfrA1 + aadA1 (n=4), dfrA12 + addA2 (n=1), dfrA12+orf+addA2 (n=1). The qnrB gene was detected in six strains out of 13 quinolone-resistant E. coli strains. Seventeen E. coli isolates from diarrhoeic rabbits harboured the enteropathogenic eae genes associated with different virulence genes tested (fimA, cnf1, aer), and affiliated to B2 (n=8) and D (n=9) phylogroups. Isolated E. coli strains from healthy rabbit were harbouring fim A and/or cnf1 genes and affiliated to A and B1 phylogroups. This study showed that E. coli strains from the intestinal tract of rabbits are resistant to the widely prescribed antibiotics in medicine. Therefore, they constitute a reservoir of antimicrobial-resistant genes, which may play a significant role in the spread of antimicrobial resistance. In addition, the eae virulence gene seemed to be implicated in diarrhoea in breeder rabbits in Tunisia.

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Emerging MDR-Pseudomonas aeruginosa in fish commonly harbor oprL and toxA virulence genes and blaTEM, blaCTX-M, and tetA antibiotic-resistance genes

Scientific Reports ◽

10.1038/s41598-020-72264-4 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 10 (1) ◽

Cited By ~ 4

Author(s):

Abdelazeem M. Algammal ◽

Mahmoud Mabrok ◽

Elayaraja Sivaramasamy ◽

Fatma M. Youssef ◽

Mona H. Atwa ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Antibiotic Resistance ◽

Resistance Genes ◽

Virulence Genes ◽

Antibiotic Resistance Genes ◽

Health Concern ◽

Diffusion Method ◽

Multi Drug Resistance ◽

Fish Farms ◽

M Gene ◽

Total Prevalence

Abstract This study aimed to investigate the prevalence, antibiogram of Pseudomonasaeruginosa (P.aeruginosa), and the distribution of virulence genes (oprL,exoS, phzM, and toxA) and the antibiotic-resistance genes (blaTEM, tetA, and blaCTX-M). A total of 285 fish (165 Oreochromisniloticus and 120 Clariasgariepinus) were collected randomly from private fish farms in Ismailia Governorate, Egypt. The collected specimens were examined bacteriologically. P. aeruginosa was isolated from 90 examined fish (31.57%), and the liver was the most prominent infected organ. The antibiogram of the isolated strains was determined using a disc diffusion method, where the tested strains exhibited multi-drug resistance (MDR) to amoxicillin, cefotaxime, tetracycline, and gentamicin. The PCR results revealed that all the examined strains harbored (oprL and toxA) virulence genes, while only 22.2% were positive for the phzM gene. On the contrary, none of the tested strains were positive for the exoS gene. Concerning the distribution of the antibiotic resistance genes, the examined strains harbored blaTEM, blaCTX-M, and tetA genes with a total prevalence of 83.3%, 77.7%, and 75.6%, respectively. Experimentally infected fish with P.aeruginosa displayed high mortalities in direct proportion to the encoded virulence genes and showed similar signs of septicemia found in the naturally infected one. In conclusion, P.aeruginosa is a major pathogen of O.niloticus and C.gariepinus.oprL and toxA genes are the most predominant virulence genes associated with P.aeruginosa infection. The blaCTX-M,blaTEM, and tetA genes are the main antibiotic-resistance genes that induce resistance patterns to cefotaxime, amoxicillin, and tetracycline, highlighting MDR P.aeruginosa strains of potential public health concern.

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Antibiotic resistance and virulence genes of extraintestinal pathogenic Escherichia coli from tropical estuary, south India

The Journal of Infection in Developing Countries ◽

10.3855/jidc.5627 ◽

2015 ◽

Vol 9 (05) ◽

pp. 496-504 ◽

Cited By ~ 1

Author(s):

Divya Sukumaran ◽

Abdulla A Mohamed Hatha

Keyword(s):

Escherichia Coli ◽

Antibiotic Resistance ◽

Multidrug Resistance ◽

Virulence Factor ◽

Virulence Genes ◽

Antimicrobial Agents ◽

Diffusion Method ◽

Disk Diffusion Method ◽

E Coli ◽

Virulence Factor Genes

Introduction: Escherichia coli strains can cause a variety of intestinal and extraintestinal diseases. Extraintestinal pathogenic E. coli (ExPEC) strains have the ability to cause severe extraintestinal infections. Multidrug resistance among ExPEC could complicate human infections. Methodology: Escherichia coli strains were isolated during the period of January 2010 to December 2012 from five different stations set at Cochin estuary. Susceptibility testing was determined by the disk-diffusion method using nine different antimicrobial agents. A total of 155 strains of Escherichia coli were screened for the presence of virulence factor genes including papAH, papC, sfa/focDE, iutA,and kpsMT II associated with ExPEC. Results: Among the 155 E. coli isolates, 26 (16.77%), carried two or more virulence genes typical of ExPEC. Furthermore, 19.23% of the ExPEC isolates with multidrug resistance were identified to belong to phylogenetic groups B2 and D. Statistically significant association of iutA gene in ExPEC was found with papC (p < 0.001) and kpsMT II (p < 0.001) genes. ExPEC isolates were mainly resistant to ampicillin (23.07%), tetracycline (19.23%), co-trimoxazole (15.38%), and cefotaxime (15.38%). The adhesion genes papAH and sfa/focDE were positively associated with resistance to gentamicin, chloramphenicol, and cefotaxime (p < 0.05). Conclusions: Co-occurrence of virulence factor genes with antibiotic resistance among ExPEC poses considerable threat to those who use this aquatic system for a living and for recreation.

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Analysis of virulence factors and antibiotic resistance genes in Group B Streptococcus from clinical samples

10.21203/rs.2.21004/v6 ◽

2020 ◽

Author(s):

Raymond Mudzana ◽

Rooyen T Mavenyengwa ◽

Muchaneta Gudza-Mugabe

Keyword(s):

Antibiotic Resistance ◽

Pregnant Women ◽

Resistance Genes ◽

Virulence Genes ◽

Antimicrobial Agents ◽

Antibiotic Resistance Genes ◽

Penicillin G ◽

Multi Drug Resistance ◽

Clinical Samples ◽

Group B

Abstract Background: Streptococcus agalacticae (Group B Streptococcus, GBS) is one of the most important causative agents of serious infections among neonates. This study was carried out to identify antibiotic resistance and virulence genes associated with GBS isolated from pregnant women.Methods: A total of 43 GBS isolates were obtained from 420 vaginal samples collected from HIV positive and negative women who were 13-35 weeks pregnant attending Antenatal Care at Chitungwiza and Harare Central Hospitals in Zimbabwe. Identification tests of GBS isolates was done using standard bacteriological methods and molecular identification testing. Antibiotic susceptibility testing was done using the modified Kirby-Bauer method and E-test strips. The boiling method was used to extract DNA and Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) was used to screen for 13 genes. Data was fed into SPSS 24.0.Results: Nine distinct virulence gene profiles were identified and hly-scpB-bca-rib 37.2% (16/43) was common. The virulence genes identified were namely hly 97.8% (42/43), scpB 90.1% (39/43), bca 86.0% (37/43), rib 69.8% (30/43) and bac 11.6% (5/43). High resistance to tetracycline 97.7% (42/43) was reported followed by 72.1% (31/43) cefazolin, 69.8% (30/43) penicillin G, 58.1% (25/43) ampicillin, 55.8% (24/43) clindamycin, 46.5% (20/43) ceftriaxone, 34.9% (15/43) chloramphenicol, and 30.2% (13/43) for both erythromycin and vancomycin using disk diffusion. Antibiotic resistance genes among the resistant and intermediate-resistant isolates showed high frequencies for tetM 97.6% (41/42) and low frequencies for ermB 34.5% (10/29), ermTR 10.3% (3/29), mefA 3.4% (1/29), tetO 2.4% (1/42) and linB 0% (0/35). The atr housekeeping gene yielded 100% (43/43) positive results, whilst the mobile genetic element IS1548 yielded 9.3% (4/43).Conclusion: The study showed high prevalence of hly, scpB, bca and rib virulence genes in S. agalactiae strains isolated from pregnant women. Tetracycline resistance was predominantly caused by the tetM gene, whilst macrolide resistance was predominantly due to the presence of erm methylase, with the ermB gene being more prevalent. Multi-drug resistance coupled with the recovery of resistant isolates to antimicrobial agents such as penicillins indicates the importance of GBS surveillance and susceptibility tests. It was also observed that in vitro phenotypic resistance is not always accurately predicted by resistance genotypes.

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Research of Associated Resistance to Antimicrobial Agents of Extended Spectrum Beta-Lactamases Escherichia Coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae Strains Isolated in Senegal

Austin Journal of Microbiology ◽

10.26420/austinjmicrobiol.2021.1029 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 6 (1) ◽

Author(s):

Ngom B ◽

◽

Wade SF ◽

Diop TA ◽

Diagne R ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Escherichia Coli ◽

Klebsiella Pneumoniae ◽

Antimicrobial Agents ◽

Diffusion Method ◽

Drug Resistant ◽

Beta Lactamases ◽

E Coli ◽

Sick People ◽

Extended Spectrum ◽

Extended Spectrum Beta Lactamases

Introduction: Some strains of Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae produce Extended Spectrum Beta-Lactamases (ESBL) may be responsible for various infections such as urinary infections. These Sick people are treated in the very serious cases by association antibiotics to class to betalactamins, aminosids and quinolons. But proliferation of multi-drug resistant strains involves decreasing therapeutic success. That’s why epidemiological study must be done in all laboratories of bacteriology. Purpose: The aim of the study was to research the resistance phenotypes of our E. coli and K. pneumoniae ESBL strains compared to others families of antibiotics. Material and methods: Thirty two (32) Extended Spectrum betalactamases E. coli and K. pneumoniae strains isolated from either hospitalized patients or sick people who came for consultation were studied. Susceptibility to antimicrobial agents was determined using an antibiotic disk (Bio-Rad) diffusion method on Mueller-Hinton agar (Bio-Rad). The results were interpreted according to the Standards of the French Antibiogram Committee (CA-SFM). Results: The study showed that most of these strains were multi-drug resistant. They were resistant to many beta-lactamines antibiotics. E. coli strains were also resistant at 70,34% to aminosids, at 96,72% to quinolons, at 58,3% to cotrimoxazol, at 26,1% to chloramphénicol and at 21,4% to colistin ; about K. pneumoniae, they were resistant at 72,6% to aminosids, at 88,95% to quinolons, at 86,7% to cotrimoxazol, at 44,4% to chloramphénicol and at 25% to colistin. But all these strains were sensitive at 100% to l’imipenem.

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Virulence Factors, Antibiotic Resistance patterns, and Molecular Types of Clinical Isolates of Klebsiella Pneumoniae

10.21203/rs.3.rs-331542/v1 ◽

2021 ◽

Author(s):

Mitra Ahmadi ◽

Payam Behzadi ◽

Reza Ranjbar

Keyword(s):

Antibiotic Resistance ◽

Klebsiella Pneumoniae ◽

Molecular Typing ◽

Virulence Genes ◽

Multidrug Resistant ◽

Resistance Mechanisms ◽

Aminoglycoside Resistance ◽

Wide Range ◽

Resistance Patterns ◽

Esbl Producers

Abstract Background Klebsiella pneumoniae is armed with a wide range of antibiotic resistance mechanisms which mostly challenges effective treatment. Due to this fact, the aims of the current study were to identify the clinical strains of K . pneumoniae as well as to determine their phenotypes and molecular characterization related to antimicrobial resistance and virulence genes. Methods In this investigation, specimens from a hospital and different laboratories located in Shahr-e-Qods, Tehran, Iran were collected during a period of nine-month (December 2018 to August 2019). The isolated strains of K. pneumoniae were then identified through standard microbial and biochemical assays. Additionally, disk diffusion, combined disk, modified Hodge test and PCR were performed for antibiotic resistance of the strains and virulence genes profiling, respectively. The molecular typing was accomplished by ERIC-PCR. Results Eighty-four isolates of K. pneumoniae were identified and subjected to the study. Fifty- two percent of the isolated strains of K. pneumoniae were detected as multidrug resistant (MDR) pathotypes with the highest resistance to ceftriaxone (65%) and the lowest resistance to colistin (23%). Twenty-seven (52%) out of 52 (100%) MDR pathotypes of isolated K. pneumoniae were identified as ESBL producers. According to Modified Hodge Test (MHT) results, out of 24 resistant strains of isolated K. pneumoniae to imipenem and meropenem, 15 pathotypes (62.5%) were detected as KPC producers. The gene of blaCTX (encoding carbapenemase) with 96% ranked first, while the blaKPC gene with the prevalence of 71% ranked second among ESBL producers. The aminoglycoside resistance gene of Aac6-Ib showed the highest frequency with the prevalence percentage of 90%. The virulence genes of mrkD (94%) and magA (11%) were the highest and lowest among isolates, respectively. According to ERIC-PCR results the isolated strains of K. pneumoniae were divided into four clusters in which the cluster 4 was predominant group. Conclusions The high prevalence of antibiotic resistance and virulence genes in conjunction with a significant relationship between the strains reveals a high pathogenic capacity of the isolated pathotypes of K. pneumoniae . These findings emphasize the choose of more effective antibiotic regimens for treatment of infections caused by K. pneumoniae. Keywords: Klebsiella pneumoniae , antibiotic resistance, ESBL, virulence genes, molecular typing.

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Analysis of virulence factors and antibiotic resistance genes in Group B Streptococcus from clinical samples

10.21203/rs.2.21004/v4 ◽

2020 ◽

Author(s):

Raymond Mudzana ◽

Rooyen T Mavenyengwa ◽

Muchaneta Gudza-Mugabe

Keyword(s):

Antibiotic Resistance ◽

Pregnant Women ◽

Resistance Genes ◽

Virulence Genes ◽

Antimicrobial Agents ◽

Antibiotic Resistance Genes ◽

Penicillin G ◽

Multi Drug Resistance ◽

Clinical Samples ◽

Group B

Abstract Background: Streptococcus agalacticae (Group B Streptococcus, GBS) is one of the most important causative agents of serious infections among neonates. This study was carried out to identify antibiotic resistance and virulence genes associated with GBS isolated from pregnant women.Methods: A total of 43 GBS isolates were obtained from 420 vaginal samples collected from HIV positive and negative women who were 13-35 weeks pregnant attending Antenatal Care at Chitungwiza and Harare Central Hospitals in Zimbabwe. Identification tests of GBS isolates was done using standard bacteriological methods and molecular identification testing. Antibiotic susceptibility testing was done using the modified Kirby-Bauer method and E-test strips. The boiling method was used to extract DNA and Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) was used to screen for 13 genes. Data was fed into SPSS 24.0.Results: Nine distinct virulence gene profiles were identified and hly-scpB-bca-rib 37.2% (16/43) was common. The virulence genes identified were namely hly 97.8% (42/43), scpB 90.1% (39/43), bca 86.0% (37/43), rib 69.8% (30/43) and bac 11.6% (5/43). High resistance to tetracycline 97.7% (42/43) was reported followed by 72.1% (31/43) cefazolin, 69.8% (30/43) penicillin G, 58.1% (25/43) ampicillin, 55.8% (24/43) clindamycin, 46.5% (20/43) ceftriaxone, 34.9% (15/43) chloramphenicol, and 30.2% (13/43) for both erythromycin and vancomycin using disk diffusion. Antibiotic resistance genes among the resistant and intermediate-resistant isolates showed high frequencies for tetM 97.6% (41/42) and low frequencies for ermB 34.5% (10/29), ermTR 10.3% (3/29), mefA 3.4% (1/29), tetO 2.4% (1/42) and linB 0% (0/35). The atr housekeeping gene yielded 100% (43/43) positive results, whilst the mobile genetic element IS1548 yielded 9.3% (4/43).Conclusion: The study showed high prevalence of hly, scpB, bca and rib virulence genes in S. agalactiae strains isolated from pregnant women. Tetracycline resistance was predominantly caused by the tetM gene, whilst macrolide resistance was predominantly due to the presence of erm methylase, with the ermB gene being more prevalent. Multi-drug resistance coupled with the recovery of resistant isolates to antimicrobial agents such as penicillins indicates the importance of GBS surveillance and susceptibility tests. It was also observed that in vitro phenotypic resistance is not always accurately predicted by resistance genotypes.

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Method for Determining the Profile of Antibiotic Resistance Genes in the Vibrio cholera Strains by RT-PCR

Problems of Particularly Dangerous Infections ◽

10.21055/0370-1069-2021-2-79-86 ◽

2021 ◽

pp. 79-86

Author(s):

A. S. Gladkikh ◽

I. S. Fedotova ◽

L. V. Mironova

Keyword(s):

Antibiotic Resistance ◽

Resistance Genes ◽

Antimicrobial Agents ◽

Experimental Studies ◽

Antibiotic Resistance Genes ◽

Illumina Miseq ◽

Test System ◽

Diffusion Method ◽

Disk Diffusion Method ◽

Integrase Gene

The aim of the work was to design and carry out experimental studies of a set of reagents to identify the spectrum of genes that determine the resistance of the Vibrio cholerae strains to antibacterial drugs.Materials and methods. V. cholerae strains isolated from humans and environmental objects during epidemiological complications and the cholera-free period were included in the study. Sensitivity to antimicrobial drugs was evaluated by the disk diffusion method. Whole genome sequencing was performed on an Illumina MiSeq. The profile of resistance genes was determined based on a comparison with the ResFinder database. The temperature regime, the composition of the reaction mixtures, and the reaction parameters were optimized; the specificity, sensitivity and reproducibility of the constructed prototype test system were measured.Results and discussion. The spectrum of antibiotic resistance and the profile of resistance genes were determined for the studied strains. To develop multiplex PCR, we selected the most common in the V. cholerae populations genes, which are responsible for resistance to tetracycline (tetA), streptomycin (strA), florfenicol/ chloramphenicol (floR) and trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole (two variants of the dihydrofolate reductase gene: dfrA1 and dhfR), as well as SXT element integrase gene (int). In the reaction, markers were specifically detected in accordance with the genomic resistance profile, which correlates with the phenotypic manifestation of resistance determined by the disco-diffusion method. The sensitivity of the developed panel of primers and probes for V. cholerae strains was 103 –104 CFU/ml. Therefore, taking into account the specificity, rapidity and simplicity of the reaction, the developed system of primers and probes can be successfully applied for a preliminary assessment of the resistance of the V. cholerae strains to antimicrobial agents.

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Virulence characterization of Klebsiella pneumoniae and its relation with ESBL and AmpC beta-lactamase associated resistance

Iranian Journal of Microbiology ◽

10.18502/ijm.v12i2.2613 ◽

2020 ◽

Author(s):

Elghar Soltani ◽

Alka Hasani ◽

Mohammad Ahangarzadeh Rezaee ◽

Tahereh Pirzadeh ◽

Mahin Ahangar Oskouee ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Antibiotic Resistance ◽

Klebsiella Pneumoniae ◽

Virulence Genes ◽

Diffusion Method ◽

Beta Lactamase ◽

Disk Diffusion Method ◽

Extended Spectrum Beta Lactamase ◽

Virulence Trait ◽

Polymerase Chain

Background and Objectives: Trend analysis reveals that Klebsiella pneumoniae has witnessed a steep enhancement in the antibiotic resistance and virulence over the last few decades. The present investigation aimed at a comprehensive approach investigating antibiotic susceptibility including, extended spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL) and AmpC β-lactamase (AmpC) resistance and the prevalence of virulence genes among the K. pneumoniae isolates. Materials and Methods: Sixty-one K. pneumoniae isolates were obtained from various clinical infections. Antimicrobial susceptibility was performed by disk diffusion method. The Mast® D68C test detected the presence of ESBLs and AmpCs phenotypically, and later presence of ESBL and AmpC genes was observed by polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Multi- plex-PCR was performed to investigate various virulence genes. CMY-2 Results: Amongst 61 K. pneumoniae isolates, 59% were observed as ESBL and 14.7% as AmpC producers. All ESBL CTX-M-15 producers were positive for bla CTX-M-15 , while bla CTX-M-14 was observed in 54.1% isolates. The frequency of AmpC genes was CMY-2 as follows: bla CMY-2 (60.7%) and bla DHA-1 (34.4%). The most frequent virulence genes were those encoding enterobactin and DHA-1 lipopolysaccharide. Presence of mrkD was associated with bla CMY-2 DHA-1 gene, while bla significantly (p≤0.05) correlated DHA-1 with the presence of iutA and rmpA virulence genes. bla positive isolates had urine as a significant source, while bla positive isolates were mainly collected from wound exudates (p≤0.05). Conclusion: Our results highlight that ESBL and AmpC production along with a plethora of virulence trait on K. pneumoni- ae should be adequately considered to assess its pathogenesis and antibiotic resistance.

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Analysis of virulence factors and antibiotic resistance genes in group B streptococcus from clinical samples

BMC Infectious Diseases ◽

10.1186/s12879-021-05820-6 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 21 (1) ◽

Author(s):

Raymond Mudzana ◽

Rooyen T. Mavenyengwa ◽

Muchaneta Gudza-Mugabe

Keyword(s):

Antibiotic Resistance ◽

Pregnant Women ◽

Resistance Genes ◽

Virulence Genes ◽

Antimicrobial Agents ◽

Antibiotic Resistance Genes ◽

Penicillin G ◽

Multi Drug Resistance ◽

Clinical Samples ◽

Group B

Abstract Background Streptococcus agalacticae (Group B Streptococcus, GBS) is one of the most important causative agents of serious infections among neonates. This study was carried out to identify antibiotic resistance and virulence genes associated with GBS isolated from pregnant women. Methods A total of 43 GBS isolates were obtained from 420 vaginal samples collected from HIV positive and negative women who were 13–35 weeks pregnant attending Antenatal Care at Chitungwiza and Harare Central Hospitals in Zimbabwe. Identification tests of GBS isolates was done using standard bacteriological methods and molecular identification testing. Antibiotic susceptibility testing was done using the modified Kirby-Bauer method and E-test strips. The boiling method was used to extract DNA and Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) was used to screen for 13 genes. Data was fed into SPSS 24.0. Results Nine distinct virulence gene profiles were identified and hly-scpB-bca-rib 37.2% (16/43) was common. The virulence genes identified were namely hly 97.8% (42/43), scpB 90.1% (39/43), bca 86.0% (37/43), rib 69.8% (30/43) and bac 11.6% (5/43). High resistance to tetracycline 97.7% (42/43) was reported followed by 72.1% (31/43) cefazolin, 69.8% (30/43) penicillin G, 58.1% (25/43) ampicillin, 55.8% (24/43) clindamycin, 46.5% (20/43) ceftriaxone, 34.9% (15/43) chloramphenicol, and 30.2% (13/43) for both erythromycin and vancomycin using disk diffusion. Antibiotic resistance genes among the resistant and intermediate-resistant isolates showed high frequencies for tetM 97.6% (41/42) and low frequencies for ermB 34.5% (10/29), ermTR 10.3% (3/29), mefA 3.4% (1/29), tetO 2.4% (1/42) and linB 0% (0/35). The atr housekeeping gene yielded 100% (43/43) positive results, whilst the mobile genetic element IS1548 yielded 9.3% (4/43). Conclusion The study showed high prevalence of hly, scpB, bca and rib virulence genes in S. agalactiae strains isolated from pregnant women. Tetracycline resistance was predominantly caused by the tetM gene, whilst macrolide resistance was predominantly due to the presence of erm methylase, with the ermB gene being more prevalent. Multi-drug resistance coupled with the recovery of resistant isolates to antimicrobial agents such as penicillins indicates the importance of GBS surveillance and susceptibility tests. It was also observed that in vitro phenotypic resistance is not always accurately predicted by resistance genotypes.

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