Abstract. Mountainous regions act as the water towers of the world by producing streamflow and groundwater recharge, a function that is particularly important in semiarid regions. Quantifying rates of mountain system recharge is difficult, and hydrologic models offer a method to estimate recharge over large scales. These recharge estimates are prone to uncertainty from various sources including model structure and parameters. The quality of meteorological forcing datasets, particularly in mountainous regions, is a large source of uncertainty that is often neglected in groundwater investigations. In this contribution, we quantify the impact of uncertainty in both precipitation and air temperature forcing datasets on the simulated groundwater recharge in the mountainous watershed of the Kaweah River in California, USA. We make use of the integrated surface water – groundwater model, ParFlow.CLM and several gridded datasets commonly used in hydrologic studies, downscaled NLDAS-2, PRISM, Daymet, Gridmet, and TopoWx. Simulations indicate that across all forcing datasets, mountain front recharge is an important component of the water budget in the mountainous watershed accounting for 25–46 % of the annual precipitation, and ~90 % of the total mountain system recharge to the adjacent Central Valley aquifer. The uncertainty in gridded air temperature or precipitation datasets, when assessed individually, results in similar ranges of uncertainty in the simulated water budget. Variations in simulated recharge to changes in precipitation (elasticities) and air temperature (sensitivities) are larger than 1 % change in recharge per 1 % change in precipitation or 1-degree C change in temperature. The total volume of snowmelt is the primary factor creating the high water budget sensitivity; and snowmelt volume is influenced by both precipitation and air temperature forcings. The combined effect of uncertainty in air temperature and precipitation on recharge is additive, and results in uncertainty levels roughly equal to the sum of the individual uncertainties. Mountain system recharge pathways including mountain block recharge, mountain aquifer recharge, and mountain front recharge are less sensitive to changes in air temperature than changes in precipitation. Mountain front and mountain block recharge are more sensitive to changes in precipitation than other recharge pathways. The magnitude of uncertainty in the simulated water budget reflects the importance of developing high qualify meteorological forcing datasets in mountainous regions.
The results of the speleological and speleoclimatic explorations of the great ice-cellar on Devica and of the ice-cellars of Rtanj and Tupiznica
