scholarly journals Effects of Marine Reserve Protection on Adjacent Non-protected Populations in New Zealand

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
◽  
Daniela Díaz-Guisado
Keyword(s):  
New Zealand ◽  
Protected Areas ◽  
Reef Fish ◽  
Biological Effects ◽  
Marine Reserve ◽  
Fish Density ◽  
Density Gradients ◽  
Positive Effects ◽  
Wide Range ◽  
Positive Effect

<p>Marine reserves (MRs) have been established in many parts of the globe for a variety of reasons and there is an increasing body of evidence that indicates they provide a wide range of benefits that can extend beyond their boundaries. In the present study, the biological effects of protection provided by MRs in New Zealand were evaluated, particularly focusing on the potential impacts of reserves on non-protected areas in terms of export of biomass. First, the biological response of two exploited species to MR protection in New Zealand was quantified by comparing meta-analysis results based on response ratio (RR) analysis and Hedges’ g statistics. Then, effect of MR size and age on those biological responses was determined. Most MRs supported a greater density of larger individuals than unprotected areas. Results indicated that the benefits provided by MRs scale with reserve size. Also, MR age explained a significant amount of the variation in the density and length of both species. Comparison of the performance of RRs with Hedges’ g revealed that RR analysis is an appropriate alternative to Hedges’ g statistic for meta-analyses of MR effectiveness because of its ease of use and interpretation. Then, a 14-year time series of fish density data was analyzed to determine early changes in a multi-species fish assemblage inside the Taputeranga Marine Reserve (TMR) compared to adjacent fishing grounds using a Before and After Control-Impact Paired Series (BACIPS) design. This analysis was performed in order to detect changes in fish density due to protection. Commercial, recreational and traditional fisheries are important in this region and the biomasses of several exploited species have been substantially depleted as a result of fishing. The exclusion of fishing from the area should enable at least some species to recover inside the reserve, as has happened in other reserves in New Zealand. The faster growing, more productive species, and those that have been heavily exploited are expected to recover within a few years. Early changes in density were evident in the area protected by the TMR for most of the species surveyed in terms of the effect size analysis. However, most of the changes were too small to be detected with the statistical analyses that were performed. To determine the most appropriate methodology to be used in a later survey in the study area, two Baited Underwater Video (BUV) methodologies (Horizontal versus Vertical set-up) were compared in terms of their ability to record the density and size of reef fish. Results indicated that both the horizontal and vertical BUV techniques are able to detect both conspicuous and cryptic species and both techniques were effective in the detection of carnivorous species, especially large predatory species such as blue cod, but also effective in the detection of fish species that have been overestimated in terms of abundance by other methodologies. The horizontal BUV technique seems to be a better technique for evaluating reef fish size, especially when measuring large fish that exhibit highly aggressive behaviour. The horizontal BUV technique was later used in conjunction with the Underwater Visual Census (UVC) technique to assess the effects of the protection provided by the TMR. A multispecies analysis was carried out to detect any differences in density and length of fish between reserve and fished areas and to detect gradients of fish density across reserve boundaries that could be related to the occurrence of spillover from the reserve to adjacent fished areas. Density gradients provide indirect evidence of spillover, defined as the movement of adult individuals from reserve to adjacent non-protected areas. Little evidence consistent with a positive effect of reserve protection in the TMR was found. Also, little evidence of spillover was found, with theexception of two target species (blue cod and blue moki). In contrast with the findings of previous studies, density gradients were found for both sedentary and vagile species. These results are consistent with the occurrence of density independent spillover that is expected to occur as soon as the density inside reserve areas is higher compared to fished areas. To further understand the patterns of fish movement relative to the effect of protection provided by MRs, spatial differences in density, length and survival of blue cod inside the TMR and adjacent fishing grounds and the movement patterns of the species across the boundaries of the reserve through a capture-mark-recapture (CMR) analysis were examined. CMR studies can provide direct evidence of spillover. Evidence of a positive effect of reserve protection in the TMR for blue cod in terms of increased density, length and survival in reserve areas was found. Also, evidence of high site fidelity of blue cod in both reserve and fished areas, with the majority of individual moving only short distances was found. However, the potential for this species to also travel long distances (>100 km) was confirmed, suggesting the possibility for spillover of the species from reserved to fished areas. Overall, the results of my thesis indicate that New Zealand MRs, consistent with a large body of earlier evidence, are having positive effects on the abundance and size of the species that afford protection to. These results also highlight that both MR age and area are important factors determining the response to protection both in terms of the effects within reserves and on adjacent non-protected areas. Finally, my results highlight the fact that the greater benefits in terms of increased abundance and size, and also movement across reserve boundaries, are obtained for highly exploited species that can potentially move between areas.</p>

scholarly journals Effects of Marine Reserve Protection on Adjacent Non-protected Populations in New Zealand

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
◽  
Daniela Díaz-Guisado
Keyword(s):  
New Zealand ◽  
Protected Areas ◽  
Reef Fish ◽  
Biological Effects ◽  
Marine Reserve ◽  
Fish Density ◽  
Density Gradients ◽  
Positive Effects ◽  
Wide Range ◽  
Positive Effect

<p>Marine reserves (MRs) have been established in many parts of the globe for a variety of reasons and there is an increasing body of evidence that indicates they provide a wide range of benefits that can extend beyond their boundaries. In the present study, the biological effects of protection provided by MRs in New Zealand were evaluated, particularly focusing on the potential impacts of reserves on non-protected areas in terms of export of biomass. First, the biological response of two exploited species to MR protection in New Zealand was quantified by comparing meta-analysis results based on response ratio (RR) analysis and Hedges’ g statistics. Then, effect of MR size and age on those biological responses was determined. Most MRs supported a greater density of larger individuals than unprotected areas. Results indicated that the benefits provided by MRs scale with reserve size. Also, MR age explained a significant amount of the variation in the density and length of both species. Comparison of the performance of RRs with Hedges’ g revealed that RR analysis is an appropriate alternative to Hedges’ g statistic for meta-analyses of MR effectiveness because of its ease of use and interpretation. Then, a 14-year time series of fish density data was analyzed to determine early changes in a multi-species fish assemblage inside the Taputeranga Marine Reserve (TMR) compared to adjacent fishing grounds using a Before and After Control-Impact Paired Series (BACIPS) design. This analysis was performed in order to detect changes in fish density due to protection. Commercial, recreational and traditional fisheries are important in this region and the biomasses of several exploited species have been substantially depleted as a result of fishing. The exclusion of fishing from the area should enable at least some species to recover inside the reserve, as has happened in other reserves in New Zealand. The faster growing, more productive species, and those that have been heavily exploited are expected to recover within a few years. Early changes in density were evident in the area protected by the TMR for most of the species surveyed in terms of the effect size analysis. However, most of the changes were too small to be detected with the statistical analyses that were performed. To determine the most appropriate methodology to be used in a later survey in the study area, two Baited Underwater Video (BUV) methodologies (Horizontal versus Vertical set-up) were compared in terms of their ability to record the density and size of reef fish. Results indicated that both the horizontal and vertical BUV techniques are able to detect both conspicuous and cryptic species and both techniques were effective in the detection of carnivorous species, especially large predatory species such as blue cod, but also effective in the detection of fish species that have been overestimated in terms of abundance by other methodologies. The horizontal BUV technique seems to be a better technique for evaluating reef fish size, especially when measuring large fish that exhibit highly aggressive behaviour. The horizontal BUV technique was later used in conjunction with the Underwater Visual Census (UVC) technique to assess the effects of the protection provided by the TMR. A multispecies analysis was carried out to detect any differences in density and length of fish between reserve and fished areas and to detect gradients of fish density across reserve boundaries that could be related to the occurrence of spillover from the reserve to adjacent fished areas. Density gradients provide indirect evidence of spillover, defined as the movement of adult individuals from reserve to adjacent non-protected areas. Little evidence consistent with a positive effect of reserve protection in the TMR was found. Also, little evidence of spillover was found, with theexception of two target species (blue cod and blue moki). In contrast with the findings of previous studies, density gradients were found for both sedentary and vagile species. These results are consistent with the occurrence of density independent spillover that is expected to occur as soon as the density inside reserve areas is higher compared to fished areas. To further understand the patterns of fish movement relative to the effect of protection provided by MRs, spatial differences in density, length and survival of blue cod inside the TMR and adjacent fishing grounds and the movement patterns of the species across the boundaries of the reserve through a capture-mark-recapture (CMR) analysis were examined. CMR studies can provide direct evidence of spillover. Evidence of a positive effect of reserve protection in the TMR for blue cod in terms of increased density, length and survival in reserve areas was found. Also, evidence of high site fidelity of blue cod in both reserve and fished areas, with the majority of individual moving only short distances was found. However, the potential for this species to also travel long distances (>100 km) was confirmed, suggesting the possibility for spillover of the species from reserved to fished areas. Overall, the results of my thesis indicate that New Zealand MRs, consistent with a large body of earlier evidence, are having positive effects on the abundance and size of the species that afford protection to. These results also highlight that both MR age and area are important factors determining the response to protection both in terms of the effects within reserves and on adjacent non-protected areas. Finally, my results highlight the fact that the greater benefits in terms of increased abundance and size, and also movement across reserve boundaries, are obtained for highly exploited species that can potentially move between areas.</p>

scholarly journals Enhanced Bilosomal Properties Resulted in Optimum Pharmacological Effects by Increased Acidification Pathways

Pharmaceutics ◽  
2021 ◽  
Vol 13 (8) ◽  
pp. 1184
Author(s):  
Armin Mooranian ◽  
Thomas Foster ◽  
Corina M Ionescu ◽  
Daniel Walker ◽  
Melissa Jones ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Bile Acids ◽  
Biological Effects ◽  
Cellular Respiration ◽  
Full Potential ◽  
Protective Effects ◽  
Pharmacological Effects ◽  
Β Cells ◽  
Positive Effects ◽  
Wide Range ◽  
Anti Inflammatory

Introduction: Recent studies in our laboratory have shown that some bile acids, such as chenodeoxycholic acid (CDCA), can exert cellular protective effects when encapsulated with viable β-cells via anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidative stress mechanisms. However, to explore their full potential, formulating such bile acids (that are intrinsically lipophilic) can be challenging, particularly if larger doses are required for optimal pharmacological effects. One promising approach is the development of nano gels. Accordingly, this study aimed to examine biological effects of various concentrations of CDCA using various solubilising nano gel systems on encapsulated β-cells. Methods: Using our established cellular encapsulation system, the Ionic Gelation Vibrational Jet Flow technology, a wide range of CDCA β-cell capsules were produced and examined for morphological, biological, and inflammatory profiles. Results and Conclusion: Capsules’ morphology and topographic characteristics remained similar, regardless of CDCA or nano gel concentrations. The best pharmacological, anti-inflammatory, and cellular respiration, metabolism, and energy production effects were observed at high CDCA and nano gel concentrations, suggesting dose-dependent cellular protective and positive effects of CDCA when incorporated with high loading nano gel.

scholarly journals Emotions Among Students Engaging in Connectivist Learning Experiences

2020 ◽  
Vol 21 (2) ◽  
pp. 98-117
Author(s):  
Alaa A AlDahdouh
Keyword(s):  
Distance Education ◽  
Student Performance ◽  
Learning Environments ◽  
Negative Emotions ◽  
General Rule ◽  
Effect Data ◽  
Positive Effects ◽  
Think Aloud Protocol ◽  
Wide Range ◽  
Positive Effect

Emotion has long been a question of great interest in a wide range of fields. As a general rule, emotions are categorized as positive, which we seek, and negative, from which we turn away. However, empirically-backed connectivists claim that even negative emotions produce positive effects on student performance. What is less clear is how this process happens. This study had two primary aims. First, to assess the prevalence and distribution of emotions in connectivist environments. Second, to provide in-depth and experiment-based analysis that shows how and when negative emotions have their positive effect. Data for this study were mainly collected using an aided think-aloud protocol with nine participants, each of whom received ten tasks. Findings of the current study confirmed the dominance of negative emotions in connectivist learning environments and presented a model that could explain the variation of empirical results. Implications for researchers and teachers in distance education are discussed.

scholarly journals Curcumin nanonization using an alternative small-scale production unit: selection of proper stabilizer applying basic physicochemical consideration and biological activity assessment of nanocrystals

2020 ◽  
Vol 59 (1) ◽  
pp. 406-424
Author(s):  
Ines Nikolić ◽  
Jelena Antić-Stanković ◽  
Dragana Božić ◽  
Danijela Randjelovic ◽  
Bojan Marković ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Biological Effects ◽  
Release Kinetics ◽  
Cancer Cell Line ◽  
Average Diameter ◽  
Lung Fibroblasts ◽  
Small Scale ◽  
Scale Production ◽  
Positive Effects ◽  
Wide Range ◽  
Poorly Soluble

AbstractAs the number of poorly soluble drugs is increasing, nanocrystals have become very interesting due to wide range of application possibilities. Curcuminwas used as a model active ingredient in this work. Even though it has many proven positive effects, due to its physicochemical issues, its possibilities have not been fully exploited. The goal of this work was to select optimal conditions for a top-down method for curcumin nanosuspension production, and to perform their comprehensive characterization applying complementary methodologies: dynamic light scattering, polarization and atomic force microscopy, thermal analysis, X-ray powder diffraction, antioxidant activity evaluation, release kinetics assessment, and screening of potential biological effects applying cell viability assays on normal human lung fibroblasts, human melanoma and human adenomacarcinoma cells. After 30 min of milling, nanosuspensions stabilized by polysorbate 80 and by its combinations with sucrose palmitate showed good stability, while curcumin crystal structure was unaltered. Obtained nanocrystals were well defined, with average diameter 120–170 nm and PDI of about 0.25, zeta potential was below −30 mV and pH~5 for all formulations. Nanodispersions exhibited high antioxidant potential and improved dissolution rate compared to the corresponding coarse dispersions. Although curcumin nanodispersions exhibited significant antiproliferative effect to each cancer cell line, the highest effect was towards adenocarcinoma cells.

scholarly journals Evidence for protection of targeted reef fish on the largest marine reserve in the Caribbean

2013 ◽  
Author(s):  
Fabián Pina-Amargós ◽  
Gaspar González-Sansón ◽  
Félix Martín-Blanco ◽  
Abel Valdivia
Keyword(s):  
Reef Fish ◽  
Fish Species ◽  
Habitat Complexity ◽  
Benthic Communities ◽  
Marine Reserve ◽  
Supporting Evidence ◽  
Reef Fish Species ◽  
The Caribbean ◽  
Abundance And Diversity ◽  
Positive Effect

Effective marine reserves can restore fish abundance and diversity in areas impacted by overfishing, but the outcomes of some reserves in developing countries where resources for enforcement are limited have seldom been evaluated. Here we assess whether the establishment of the largest marine reserve in the Caribbean has had a positive effect on the abundance of commercially valuable reef fish species in relation to neighboring unprotected areas. We surveyed 25 sites including two reef habitats (reef crest and reef slope) inside and outside the marine reserve Gardens of the Queen in Cuba over a 1.5-year period. Densities of the most targeted reef fish species were significantly higher inside than outside the reserve in both habitats. This trend was mostly consistent over time. Supporting evidence from previously published studies in the area indicates that habitat complexity, benthic communities, and the intensity of fishing pressure were similar inside and outside the reserve before reserve establishment. Additionally, reported differential fish behavior towards divers inside and outside the reserve and relative low poaching inside the reserve supported our results. Therefore, the differences observed during the study in the density of targeted reef fish among non-reserve and reserve sites have likely resulted from protection.

scholarly journals Study of Greenhouse Use of Biohazard Wastewater and Manure Compost

2019 ◽  
Vol 70 (1) ◽  
pp. 169-173
Author(s):  
Elena Goldan ◽  
Valentin Nedeff ◽  
Ioan Gabriel Sandu ◽  
Emilian Mosnegutu ◽  
Mirela Panainte
Keyword(s):  
Soil Properties ◽  
Agricultural Land ◽  
Biological Effects ◽  
Application Rate ◽  
Organic Wastes ◽  
Cattle Manure ◽  
Organic Fertilizers ◽  
Positive Effects ◽  
Manure Compost ◽  
Wide Range

The biochar used on agricultural land, can have a wide range of physical, chemical and biological effects on soil properties. Also cattle manure is important not only as the amount of nutrients inserted into the soil, but also for improving the conditions for growth and development of the plants. The positive effects on soil properties and plant growth are usually observed when biochar is used in mixture with other types of organic fertilizers. In this study, was used sewage sludge biochar, cattle manure compost, and mixtures made from these organic wastes in different concentrations, at application rates of 5 t/ha and 30 t/ha, with the aim of to determine the effects on soil properties and barley plants. The use of biochar, compost and biochar-compost mixtures at 30 t/ha, produced a significant increase of barley plants and an improvement of the pH, electrical conductivity and soil respiration, while at 5 t/ha application rate, the effect of this two organic wastes and mixtures of these in different concentrations, on plants growth and soil was reduced.

scholarly journals Searching for the mechanisms involved in Antimonium crudum action on macrophage – Leishmania interaction in vitro

2021 ◽  
Vol 17 (1) ◽  
pp. 02-04
Author(s):  
Leoni Villano Bonamin ◽  
Renata Rossetini Palombo ◽  
Carolina Shultz Morim ◽  
Sandra AG Pinto ◽  
Luciane Costa Dalboni ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Biological Effect ◽  
Biological Effects ◽  
Pure Water ◽  
Image Analysis System ◽  
Gm Csf ◽  
Positive Effects ◽  
Physical Chemical ◽  
Wide Range

In previous studies [1,2] we showed that treatment of mice with Antimonium crudum (Ant-c) 30cH was able to significantly reduce monocyte migration to the infection site after injection of Leishmania (L) amazonensis into the subcutaneous tissue, resulting in clinical improvement. Follow up was performed with an in vitro model, which showed that treatment of co-cultures of RAW 264.7 macrophages and parasites with Ant-c 30cH inhibited two parasite-induced CCL2 peaks 48 and 120 hours after infection together with early inhibition of lysosome activity. These findings explained the results previously obtained in vivo. In turn, treatment with Ant-c 200cH resulted in an early and transitory peak of cell spreading at 48 hours. The coherence between the in vivo and in vitro results indicates that this is a good model to study more thoroughly the mechanisms of action of homeopathic medicines, being the first step to establish correlations between the biological effects and the physical and chemical features of Ant-c 30cH and 200cH. In the present study, the same experimental model was replicated, through comparison of vehicle (30% cereal alcohol), Ant-c 200cH, Zincum metallicum (Zinc) 200cH and Arsenicum album (Ars) 200cH, to confirm the specificity of Ant-c effects. In addition, Ant-c 200cH was ultra-centrifuged, and only the superficial phase was applied to the culture medium. This procedure intended to separate the heavier particles from the lighter ones suspended in the homeopathic medicine. The physical-chemical profile of the medicines was assessed. Solid contaminants (microparticles) in the suspension were analyzed. Conductivity was assessed through measurement of the electron current induced by a micro-amperimeter (Ryodoraku®) connected to 2 clean electrodes immersed in the samples, prepared immediately before the analysis, diluted in pure water (MilliQ, Millipore®) and filtered in 22-µ filter (Millipore®). Pure water was used as control. The device was calibrated immediately before measurements. The microparticle profile was assessed with a scanning electronic microscope - SEM (JEOL JSM 6510®) coupled to an energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) system to identify the nature of the elements present in each particle. The size and the number of particles were analyzed from the images generated by electronic microscopy with an automatic image analysis system (Metamorph®). For this purpose, all materials used was cleansed through immersion in pure acetone and subjected to 30-minute sonication before insertion into the microscope to avoid secondary contamination. The samples of medicines were subjected to ultra-centrifugation (10000rpm for 60 minutes) to induce particle sedimentation in the bottom of microtubes. 10 microliters of each sample were collected from the bottom of tubes and placed on a copper stub and kept in a closed recipient until the material was fully dry. The samples were directly analyzed with the microscope. Metallization was not necessary, because the analyzed particles had metallic nature. The biological effects of Ant-c 200cH reproduced the previous ones: spreading and phagocytosis index were significantly higher in the co-cultures treated with Ant-c 200cH compared to vehicle and other, non-specific treatments (Ars 200cH and Zinc 200cH) (p=0.05). However, these results were not exhibited by centrifuged Ant-c 200cH. Analysis of the supernatant after 48-hour incubation revealed increase of the GM-CSF content only in cultures treated with Ant-c 200cH and centrifuged-Ant-c 200cH. No change was observed in the cytokine profile in the cultures treated with Ars 200cH or Zinc 200cH. Morphological analysis of Ant-c samples on SEM showed that the microparticles in Ant-c 30cH were smaller compared to Ant-c 6cH, most of them having half-moon shape. Curiously, agglomerates of particles were detected in Ant-c 200cH. Contaminant particles suspended in pure water contained Pb, Zn, Ca, Na, Au, Hg, Nb and Si, therefore, not related to any specific biological effect of Ant-c. P was identified only in Ant-c 30cH (6.51%) and Ant-c 200cH (13.56%). This wide-range profile of different microparticles did not change after centrifugation, which indicates that the weight of these particles is not conditioned by the nature of their component elements. Conductivity was lower in the vehicle (30% alcohol) compared to Ant-c 6, 30 and 200cH (p=0.0001); the conductivity of Ant-c 200cH was the highest (p=0.008). Also Ars 200cH exhibited higher conductivity (p=0.001) compared to the vehicle. Taken together, these data suggest that the biological effect of Ant-c 200cH on macrophage spreading and phagocytosis might be partially related to the size of the microparticles found in suspension. However, specific effects relative to cytokine production did not depend on microparticle size or content. The changes in conductivity changes exhibited correlation with presence of some elements, such as P, but not with any biological effect. To summarize, the results point to the relevance of eventual false-positive effects relative to phagocytosis in macrophages treated with homeopathic medicines in vitro, due to the interference of larger sized microparticles. They also points to the specificity of GM-CSF expression after 48-hours of co-culture exposure to Ant-c 200cH, centrifuged or not, which suggests it was independent from microparticle content and conductivity. The physical-chemical features of homeopathic medicines related to their specific biological effects are still unknown. Additional studies are needed in this regard.

scholarly journals Evidence for protection of targeted reef fish on the largest marine reserve in the Caribbean

2013 ◽  
Author(s):  
Fabián Pina-Amargós ◽  
Gaspar González-Sansón ◽  
Félix Martín-Blanco ◽  
Abel Valdivia
Keyword(s):  
Reef Fish ◽  
Fish Species ◽  
Habitat Complexity ◽  
Benthic Communities ◽  
Marine Reserve ◽  
Supporting Evidence ◽  
Reef Fish Species ◽  
The Caribbean ◽  
Abundance And Diversity ◽  
Positive Effect

Effective marine reserves can restore fish abundance and diversity in areas impacted by overfishing, but the outcomes of some reserves in developing countries where resources for enforcement are limited have seldom been evaluated. Here we assess whether the establishment of the largest marine reserve in the Caribbean has had a positive effect on the abundance of commercially valuable reef fish species in relation to neighboring unprotected areas. We surveyed 25 sites including two reef habitats (reef crest and reef slope) inside and outside the marine reserve Gardens of the Queen in Cuba over a 1.5-year period. Densities of the most targeted reef fish species were significantly higher inside than outside the reserve in both habitats. This trend was mostly consistent over time. Supporting evidence from previously published studies in the area indicates that habitat complexity, benthic communities, and the intensity of fishing pressure were similar inside and outside the reserve before reserve establishment. Additionally, reported differential fish behavior towards divers inside and outside the reserve and relative low poaching inside the reserve supported our results. Therefore, the differences observed during the study in the density of targeted reef fish among non-reserve and reserve sites have likely resulted from protection.

scholarly journals Interrelationships Between Psychosocial, Motivational, and Psychological Processes for Effective Learning: A Structural Equation Modeling Study

2021 ◽  
Vol 12 ◽  
Author(s):  
Huy P. Phan ◽  
Bing H. Ngu
Keyword(s):  
Structural Equation Modeling ◽  
Structural Equation ◽  
Social Experiences ◽  
Equation Modeling ◽  
Psychological Processes ◽  
Positive Effects ◽  
Wide Range ◽  
Different Types ◽  
Motivation And Engagement ◽  
Positive Effect

We tested a theoretical-conceptual model that introduced our recently developed psychological concept, termed as psychological processes, which is defined as “a person’s continuing frame of mind to focus on disposition toward strong resolute, structured thoughts and organization, and aspiration to strive for educational success.” This proposition is innovative as it considers the notion that a person’s mindset is malleable and, importantly, subjects to social experiences derived from a situated social context. Moreover, from our definition, we contend that psychological processes, as a distinct construct, is “latent,” or underlying, with three comparable psychological attributes: personal resolve, effective functioning, and personal striving. Our conceptualization, acknowledging the importance of social contexts and individualized experience and personal belief, proposed that perceived social experiences (i.e., positive versus negative), as a source of information, would shape a student’s psychological processes, his/her state of motivation, and engagement in different types of adaptive outcomes. Moreover, from our point of view, psychological processes would act as a predictor as well as a potential mediator of motivation and engagement in different types of adaptive outcomes. In a similar vein, from the positive effect of psychological processes, motivation could act as a predictor as well as a mediator of adaptive outcomes. Structural equation modeling, from Taiwanese university students’ (N = 739) responses to various Likert-scale measures, showed support for our original a priori model – for example, the positive effects of perceived social experiences on psychological processes (β = 0.81, p &lt; 0.001) motivation (β = 0.61, p &lt; 0.001), and adaptive outcomes (β = 0.36, p &lt; 0.01), and the positive effect of psychological processes on motivation (β = 0.31, p &lt; 0.01). Interestingly, we also found some interesting findings with regard to the effects of measured indicators – for example, the positive effect of personal resolve, as a measured indicator, on adaptive outcomes (β = 0.28, p &lt; 0.001), and the effect of self-efficacy, as a measured indicator, on academic liking experience, also a measured indicator (β = 0.12, p &lt; 0.01). Overall, the results established have a wide range of implications for consideration – for example, the development of an educational program and/or instructional design that could promote and foster positive learning experiences.

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