Brief outline of the history of world epidemics-pandemics Part II. Cholera nineteenth

2021 ◽  
pp. 67-72
Author(s):  
O.E. Fedorenko ◽  
К.V. Коlyadenko
Keyword(s):  
19Th Century ◽  
18Th Century ◽  
Cholera Vibrio ◽  
Holy Places ◽  
History Of ◽  
Imminent Death ◽  
Active Communication ◽  
Almost All ◽  
Political Economic ◽  
The 19Th Century

An epidemic of any infectious disease is an invisible ruthless enemy that cannot be defeated by military, political, economic or ideological means. Humanity always reacts to such threats quite nervously and subconsciously tries to mythologize them, at least a little, in order to somehow psychologically protect itself from the real fear of imminent death. Since there is no rational defense against such a threat, people for the most part react in an irrational manner.The 19th century, almost the same as the previous centuries, «started» in epidemiological terms almost from the very beginning of its calendar. Only in contrast to the previous 18th century, the main and dominant danger was posed by another infectious pathology — cholera.In the history of medicine, over the 19th century, as many as six outbreaks of cholera epidemics were recorded since 1817. The first of them began in East Bengal and lasted 8 years (1817—1824), gradually, covering almost all India and big regions of the Middle East. It was worsened by the traditional travels of both Hindu and Muslim pilgrims to «holy places» who spread Vibrio cholerae on foot and through active communication with local residents.One of the significant reasons why cholera epidemic continued with minimal interruptions for almost the entire nineteenth century was an insufficient level of scientific knowledge in microbiology and the resulting ignorance of the causative agent of cholera — vibrio and its properties.Another factor was a complete lack of understanding by society of the need to observe at least the simplest sanitary standards in everyday life. And there was also misunderstanding among the leadership which tried to limit the next outbreak of cholera mainly by administrative measures without adequate explanations of their essence and necessity to the population.

scholarly journals The Phenomenon of Greek Religious Engravings: The Place of Engravings from the Collection of the Moscow Theological Academy Museum in the History of Engravings of the Greek World

2019 ◽  
pp. 190-215
Author(s):  
Анна Леонидовна Краснова
Keyword(s):  
19Th Century ◽  
18Th Century ◽  
Great Influence ◽  
Great Success ◽  
Metal Plates ◽  
Church Of The East ◽  
Holy Places ◽  
History Of ◽  
The 19Th Century ◽  
Greek World

Цель статьи - раскрыть понятие «греческая религиозная гравюра», а именно выявить, что это за гравюры, для чего они предназначались, какая историческая ситуация спровоцировала их распространение, а также определить их роль и значение для обителей, расположенных на оккупированных Османской империей территориях. На гравюрах изображаются образы святых и виды монастырей, которые распространялись монахами взамен на милостыню среди паломников. В условиях оккупации распространение гравюр было существенным источником дохода для обедневших монастырей Афона. Первые афонские гравюры выпускались в Европе, но с XIX в. афонские монахи создают гравюры самостоятельно. Статья раскрывает историю создания греческих религиозных гравюр и определяет место среди них гравюр из собрания Музея Московской духовной академии «Церковно-археологического кабинета», также выявляя уникальные образцы гравюр из коллекции музея. The article is devoted to the phenomenon of Greek religious engravings. There are an easel engraving with images of saints and views of monasteries, which distributed among pilgrims to promote Christian monasteries of the Orthodox Church of the East. When and why were they become used? A lot of Orthodox monasteries became poor after occupation by Ottoman Empire. Moreover, The Mount Athos had not been known in Europe until sixteenth century. The monks of the Saint Catherine’s Monastery found that the views of the Monastery mast be interesting for pilgrims and contributed to fame of their monastery. First woodcuts printed in a large number in Leo police in the middle of the 17th century. It was a great success. The monks exchanged this engraving on charity. And the Athos’s monks followed the example of Sinai’s monks. The first engravings for The Mount Athos were printed in Europe, in such cities as Vienna, and Venice. From the end of the 18th century metal plates engraved on the Mount Athos and in the 19th century the printing of engravings was amazingly extended. The most part of engravings from the collection of Moscow Theological Academy Museum printed in the middle of the 19th century in The Mount Athos. Also, this collection has some unique prints, such as the Burning Bush. This article shows the importance of the Greek engravings for the orthodox world such the instrument for advertising the most holy places for pilgrims. This etching made a great influence on our imagination nowadays about this holly places.

scholarly journals Socio-Political Aspects of Russian Muslim Pilgrimage to Mecca in the XIX-Th Century

2020 ◽  
Vol 38 (Especial II) ◽  
pp. 47-57
Author(s):  
Anvar Ajratovich Gafarov ◽  
Mariam Arslanovna Galeeva
Keyword(s):  
19Th Century ◽  
Special Role ◽  
System A ◽  
Russian State ◽  
Holy Places ◽  
Expert Assessments ◽  
Confessional Identity ◽  
The Stability ◽  
Political Economic ◽  
The 19Th Century

Starting from the middle of the 16-th century, during the foreign policy expansion increase, the ethno-confessional diversity of the Russian state was steadily increasing. The imperial policy aimed at assimilating non-Russian peoples sharply raised the issue of their identity preservation. For domestic Muslims, an important factor in cultural and confessional identity provision was the preservation and development of their traditional ties with the Islamic world. Various political, economic, cultural, and other contacts maintained with the countries of the Muslim East have become the basis for the stability of the Muslim community in Russia under imperial pressure. In this system, a special role was originally played by the Hajj (Muslim pilgrimage to the holy places in the Hejaz), which the official administration had to reckon with. The aim of the proposed study is to identify socio-political aspects, socio-political conditions, and the specifics of the Hajj implementation in the 19th century. After the analysis of office documentation, travel notes of Muslim pilgrims, and expert assessments of orientalists, the authors concluded that, despite the increasing opposition from the authorities, the significance of the Hajj intensifies in the 19th century. Hajj became not only the factor of opposition to imperial acculturation, but also a channel for presentation the ideas of renewal.

scholarly journals The dramatization of the Holy Week in Švėkšna church in the first half of the 19th century

Menotyra ◽  
2017 ◽  
Vol 24 (1) ◽  
Author(s):  
Asta Giniūnienė
Keyword(s):  
19Th Century ◽  
Old Testament ◽  
18Th Century ◽  
Complicated Structure ◽  
Adam And Eve ◽  
Death Of Jesus ◽  
History Of ◽  
Church Art ◽  
The 19Th Century ◽  
First Time

The article for the first time analyses the decoration parts of the Christ’s tomb of the second halfof the 18th century found a few years ago in Švėkšna church. The Christ’s tomb from the oldchurch was transferred to the  new church, which was built in 1804 and used until the  4thdecade of the 19th century. On the basis of the sources and remained fragments we can statethat this was a complicated structure of the Paschal decoration designed under the Europeanbaroque scenery principles. It was composed of the paintings on boards and canvas and mis-cellaneous accessories. The  Christ’s tomb paintings are characterised by a  symbolic allegoriccontent and artistry. The prophets of the Old Testament and characters the New Testamentreflecting the Paschal Triduum liturgy were depicted in the decoration. The survived outlinepaintings of Adam and Eve in Paradise, Noah waiting for the Saviour, and Angels Lamentingover the Death of Jesus are the exceptional iconography images in the Lithuanian church art.The decorations of the Christ’s tomb were created by the professional masters who decoratedthe churches in Samogitia in the second part of the 18th century. The images of suffering anddead Jesus used in the figuration of the Paschal Triduum influenced the spread of the Passionscenes. This is supported by an interesting archival fact about the shrine with a group of sculp-tures depicting the tomb of Christ in the Švėkšna churchyard.The fragments of the Paschal decorations in the Švėkšna church are important baroque scen-ery exhibits, which are valuable for the history of the Lithuanian church art and scenography.The investigation of the Holy Week figuration in the Švėkšna church is a valuable illustrationof this multidimensional cultural, religious and artistic phenomenon.

scholarly journals Considerations to some forms of the verb a fi: sum and sunt

Diacronia ◽  
2018 ◽  
Author(s):  
Gheorghe Chivu
Keyword(s):  
20Th Century ◽  
19Th Century ◽  
18Th Century ◽  
History Of ◽  
Literary Writing ◽  
The 19Th Century

The history of the verbal forms sum and sunt, introduced into the literary writing by the Transylvanian Latinist School, reveals a winding process in the elaboration of certain cultured norms proper to the modern literary Romanian. Not at all linear, this process was concurrently influenced by two, often divergent, tendencies that were active from the end of the 18th century up to the beginning of the 20th century: the use of some cultured forms, borrowed from Latin or created according to Latin patterns; and the revitalization of certain linguistic forms with regional diffusion. Initially proposed as literary pronunciations, the two verbal forms were soon adopted and used as etymological graphic forms that corresponded to sîm and suntu from certain conservative patois. During the second half of the 19th century (sum), and during the first decades of the 20th century (sunt), the two graphic forms became orthoepic norms as well, due to the phonological tradition of the Romanian writing.

The Public and Economic Activities of the Hִatim Family of Istanbul: A Chapter in the History of the Jewish Leadership in Istanbul and Jerusalem in the 19th Century

2021 ◽  
Vol 19 (1) ◽  
pp. 97-127
Author(s):  
Leah Bornstein-Makovetsky
Keyword(s):  
Ottoman Empire ◽  
19Th Century ◽  
18Th Century ◽  
Economic Activities ◽  
The Public ◽  
Economic Elite ◽  
Late 18Th Century ◽  
History Of ◽  
The 19Th Century

This article discusses the biographies and economic and public activities of the Ḥatim family in Istanbul in the late 18th century and throughout the 19th century. Most of the attention is focused on R. Shlomo Ḥatim and his son Yitsḥak, who were members of the Jewish elite in Istanbul and settled in Jerusalem at the ends of their lives. R. Shlomo, who is said to have served the Ottoman authorities in Istanbul, settled in Jerusalem more than ten years before the leaders of the Jewish economic elite in Istanbul were executed in the 1820s. His son, surviving this purge, followed much later, immigrating to Israel in 1846, but died immediately thereafter. This article provides insights into the business activities of the Ḥatim family, as well as the activities of Yitsḥak Ḥatim as an Ottoman official in Istanbul. I also discuss two more generations of this family, considered an elite, privileged one, and that was highly esteemed among well-known rabbis in the Ottoman Empire. I also discuss the ties that developed between the communities of Istanbul and Jerusalem in the first half of the 19th century as a result of initiatives of officials in Istanbul and of immigration from Istanbul to Jerusalem.

Scientific novelties implemented into teaching mathematics in secondary schools on the Polish territories in the 19th century. The case of descriptive geometry

2020 ◽  
pp. 205-218
Author(s):  
Karolina Karpińska
Keyword(s):  
Mathematics Education ◽  
19Th Century ◽  
18Th Century ◽  
History Of Mathematics ◽  
Descriptive Geometry ◽  
Teaching Mathematics ◽  
Education History ◽  
Secondary School Education ◽  
History Of ◽  
The 19Th Century

This article is dedicated to discussing the implementation of the descriptive geometry, i.e. the scientific novelty from the end of the 18th century, in secondary school education on the Polish territories in the 19th century. At that time, Polish lands were under the occupation of three empires: Prussia, Austria, and Russia. Over the time, the policy of the partition empires toward the Poles was changing in intensity. As a consequence, in the 19th century, there were schools on the Polish territories with Polish, Prussian, Austrian and Russian curricula and relevant lecture languages. The article analyses the implementation of descriptive geometry into teaching mathematics in schools located in all three partitions. Keywords: descriptive geometry, history of mathematics education, history of mathematics

Turing, Lovelace, and Babbage

2017 ◽  
Author(s):  
Doron Swade
Keyword(s):  
19Th Century ◽  
18Th Century ◽  
Modern Computer ◽  
Modern Age ◽  
Electronic Computing ◽  
History Of ◽  
Historical Causation ◽  
The 19Th Century ◽  
The Relationship ◽  
Modern Computing

The principles on which all modern computing machines are based were enunciated more than a hundred years ago by a Cambridge mathematician named Charles Babbage.’ So declared Vivian Bowden—in charge of sales of the Ferranti Mark I computer— in 1953.1 This chapter is about historical origins. It identifies core ideas in Turing’s work on computing, embodied in the realisation of the modern computer. These ideas are traced back to their emergence in the 19th century where they are explicit in the work of Babbage and Ada Lovelace. Mechanical process, algorithms, computation as systematic method, and the relationship between halting and solvability are part of an unexpected congruence between the pre-history of electronic computing and the modern age. The chapter concludes with a consideration of whether Turing was aware of these origins and, if so, the extent—if any—to which he may have been influenced by them. Computing is widely seen as a gift of the modern age. The huge growth in computing coincided with, and was fuelled by, developments in electronics, a phenomenon decidedly of our own times. Alan Turing’s earliest work on automatic computation coincided with the dawn of the electronic age, the late 1930s, and his name is an inseparable part of the narrative of the pioneering era of automatic computing that unfolded. Identifying computing with the electronic age has had the effect of eradicating pre-history. It is as though the modern era with its rampant achievements stands alone and separate from the computational devices and aids that pre-date it. In the 18th century lex continui in natura proclaimed that nature had no discontinuities, and we tend to view historical causation in the same way. Discontinuities in history are uncomfortable: they offend against gradualism, or at least against the idea of the irreducible interconnectedness of events. The central assertion of this chapter is that core ideas evidenced in modern computing, ideas with which Turing is closely associated, emerged explicitly in the 19th century, a hundred years earlier than is commonly credited.

Historicism

2020 ◽  
Author(s):  
Mari Hvattum
Keyword(s):  
19Th Century ◽  
18Th Century ◽  
Cultural Development ◽  
Early 19Th Century ◽  
Cultural Conditions ◽  
Related Idea ◽  
History Of ◽  
Cultural Historian ◽  
The 19Th Century ◽  
Art And Architecture

In its most general sense, historicism refers to a new historical consciousness emerging in late-18th- and early-19th-century Europe. This novel “historical-mindedness,” as the cultural historian Stephen Bann has called it, sprung from a recognition that human knowledge and human making are historically conditioned and must be understood within particular historical contexts. Historicism inspired new interest in the origin and development of cultural phenomena, not least art and architecture. When used in relation to architecture, historicism usually refers to the 19th-century notion that architecture is a historically dynamic and relative phenomenon, changing with time and circumstance. This in contrast to 18th-century classicism which tended to uphold the classical tradition as a universal ideal and a timeless standard. Historicism in architecture often entails Revivals of various kinds, i.e., the reference to or use of historical styles and motifs. The term is related to concepts such as eclecticism, revivalism, and relativism. In architectural history, an early anticipation of a historicist way of thinking is Johann Joachim Winckelmann’s History of the Art of Antiquity (1764). While still idealizing Greek art, Winckelmann also analyzed Egyptian, Etruscan, Phoenician, and Persian art and architecture, paying close attention to the historical conditions in which each of these cultures emerged. This new attentiveness to the relationship between cultural conditions and artistic expression lies at the heart of historicism, as does the related idea that architecture has the capacity to represent an epoch or a nation, forming a veritable index of cultural development. There is a strong organicist aspect to historicism, i.e., a tendency to think about cultural phenomena as organic wholes that evolve according to laws.

Russian Meteorological Investigations in China in the 19th Century

2019 ◽  
Author(s):  
Tatiana Feklova
Keyword(s):  
19Th Century ◽  
18Th Century ◽  
Far East ◽  
Scientific Network ◽  
Historical Archive ◽  
Russian State ◽  
Meteorological Observatory ◽  
History Of ◽  
Academy Of Sciences ◽  
The 19Th Century

The history of the Russian Magneto-Meteorological Observatory (RMMO) in Beijing has not been extensively researched. Sources for this information are Russian (the Russian State Historical Archive, Saint Petersburg Branch of the Archive of the Academy of Sciences, Russian National Library) and Chinese (the First Historical Archive of Beijing, the Library of the Shanghai Zikavey Observatory) archives. These archival materials can be scientifically and methodologically analyzed. At the beginning of the 18th century, the Russian Orthodox Mission (ROM) was founded in the territory of Beijing. Existing until 1955, the ROM performed an important role in the development of Russian–Chinese relations. Russian scientists could only work in Beijing through the ROM due to China’s policy of fierce self-isolation. The ROM became the center of Chinese academic studies and the first training school for Russian sinologists. From its very beginning, it was considered not only a church or diplomatic mission but a research center in close cooperation with the Russian Academy of Sciences. In this context, the RMMO made important weather investigations in China and the Far East in the 19th century. The RMMO, as well as its branch stations in China and Mongolia, part of a scientific network, represented an important link between Europe and Asia and was probably the largest geographical scientific network in the world at that time.

Plutonism versus Neptunism at the southern tip of Africa: the debate on the origin of granites at the Cape, 1776–1844

2009 ◽  
Vol 100 (1-2) ◽  
pp. 1-13 ◽  
Author(s):  
Sharad Master
Keyword(s):  
19Th Century ◽  
Charles Darwin ◽  
18Th Century ◽  
Contact Metamorphism ◽  
Sea Level Changes ◽  
Table Mountain ◽  
Late 18Th Century ◽  
History Of ◽  
Early Palaeozoic ◽  
The 19Th Century

ABSTRACTThe Cape Granites are a granitic suite intruded into Neoproterozoic greywackes and slates, and unconformably overlain by early Palaeozoic Table Mountain Group orthoquartzites. They were first recognised at Paarl in 1776 by Francis Masson, and by William Anderson and William Hamilton in 1778. Studies of the Cape Granites were central to some of the early debates between the Wernerian Neptunists (Robert Jameson and his former pupils) and the Huttonian Plutonists (John Playfair, Basil Hall, Charles Darwin), in the first decades of the 19th Century, since it is at the foot of Table Mountain that the first intrusive granites outside of Scotland were described by Hall in 1812. The Neptunists believed that all rocks, including granite and basalt, were precipitated from the primordial oceans, whereas the Plutonists believed in the intrusive origin of some igneous rocks, such as granite. In this paper, some of the early descriptions and debates concerning the Cape Granites are reviewed, and the history of the development of ideas on granites (as well as on contact metamorphism and sea level changes) at the Cape in the late 18th Century and early to mid 19th Century, during the emerging years of the discipline of geology, is presented for the first time.

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