β-Glucans Could Be Adjuvants for SARS-CoV-2 Virus Vaccines (COVID-19)

Waiting for an effective treatment against the SARS-CoV-2 virus (the cause of COVID-19), the current alternatives include prevention and the use of vaccines. At the moment, vaccination is the most effective strategy in the fight against pandemic. Vaccines can be administered with different natural biological products (adjuvants) with immunomodulating properties. Adjuvants can be taken orally, complementing vaccine action. Adjuvant compounds could play a key role in alleviating the symptoms of the disease, as well as in enhancing vaccine action. Adjuvants also contribute to an effective immune response and can enhance the protective effect of vaccines in immunocompromised individuals such as the elderly. Adjuvants must not produce adverse effects, toxicity, or any other symptoms that could alter immune system function. Vaccine adjuvants are substances of wide varying chemical structure that are used to boost the immune response against a simultaneously administered antigen. Glucans could work as adjuvants due to their immunomodulatory biological activity. In this respect, β-(1,3)-(1,6) glucans are considered the most effective and safe according to the list issued by the European Commission. Only glucans with a β-(1,3) bond linked to a β-(1,6) are considered modulators of certain biological responses. The aim of this review is to present the possible effects of β-glucans as adjuvants in the efficacy of vaccines against SARS-CoV-2 virus.

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Study of the Immune Response in the Elderly: Is It Necessary to Develop a Vaccine against Neisseria meningitidis for the Aged?

Journal of Aging Research ◽

10.1155/2019/9287121 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 2019 ◽

pp. 1-8

Author(s):

Gabriela Trzewikoswki de Lima ◽

Elizabeth De Gaspari

Keyword(s):

Immune Response ◽

Neisseria Meningitidis ◽

Case Fatality Rate ◽

Case Fatality ◽

The Elderly ◽

Fatality Rate ◽

System Function ◽

Immune System Function ◽

Need To Evaluate ◽

New Vaccines

Literature reports the association between aging and decline in the immune system function. The elderly have a higher risk of developing infectious diseases and are often less responsive to vaccines that are effective in the young. The case fatality rate of invasive meningococcal disease is higher in the elderly; therefore, vaccination for this population should be evaluated. Although new vaccines have been developed against Neisseria meningitidis, there is still a need to evaluate a vaccine for those older than 60 years, as the currently licensed vaccines are not indicated for this population.

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A novel combination of intramuscular vaccine adjuvants, nanoemulsion and CpG produces an effective immune response against influenza A virus

Vaccine ◽

10.1016/j.vaccine.2020.03.026 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 38 (19) ◽

pp. 3537-3544 ◽

Cited By ~ 1

Author(s):

Su He Wang ◽

Jesse Chen ◽

Douglas Smith ◽

Zhengyi Cao ◽

Hugo Acosta ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Immune Response ◽

Influenza A Virus ◽

Influenza A ◽

Vaccine Adjuvants ◽

Effective Immune Response

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EFFECT OF PETTING A DOG ON IMMUNE SYSTEM FUNCTION

Psychological Reports ◽

10.2466/pr0.95.7.1087-1091 ◽

2004 ◽

Vol 95 (7) ◽

pp. 1087 ◽

Cited By ~ 14

Author(s):

CARL J. CHARNETSKI

Keyword(s):

Immune System ◽

System Function ◽

Immune System Function

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Five reasons COVID-19 is less severe in younger age groups

Evolution Medicine and Public Health ◽

10.1093/emph/eoaa050 ◽

2020 ◽

Author(s):

Paul W Turke

Keyword(s):

Life History ◽

Life History Theory ◽

Age Of Onset ◽

Age Groups ◽

Medical Community ◽

System Function ◽

The Third ◽

Immune System Function ◽

Age Related ◽

Younger Age

Abstract The severity of COVID-19 is age-related, with the advantage going to younger age groups. Five reasons are presented. The first two are well-known, are being actively researched by the broader medical community, and therefore are discussed only briefly here. The third, fourth, and fifth reasons derive from evolutionary life history theory, and potentially fill gaps in current understanding of why and how young and old age groups respond differently to infection with SARS-CoV-2. Age of onset of generalized somatic aging, and the timing of its progression, are identified as important causes of these disparities, as are specific antagonistic pleiotropic tradeoffs in immune system function.

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Human Coronaviruses: Counteracting the Damage by Storm

Viruses ◽

10.3390/v13081457 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 13 (8) ◽

pp. 1457

Author(s):

Dewald Schoeman ◽

Burtram C. Fielding

Keyword(s):

Immune Response ◽

Severe Disease ◽

Antiviral Agents ◽

The Elderly ◽

Highly Pathogenic ◽

Vaccine Responses ◽

Cell Mediated Immune Response ◽

Inhibition Antibody ◽

A Cell ◽

Human Coronaviruses

Over the past 18 years, three highly pathogenic human (h) coronaviruses (CoVs) have caused severe outbreaks, the most recent causative agent, SARS-CoV-2, being the first to cause a pandemic. Although much progress has been made since the COVID-19 pandemic started, much about SARS-CoV-2 and its disease, COVID-19, is still poorly understood. The highly pathogenic hCoVs differ in some respects, but also share some similarities in clinical presentation, the risk factors associated with severe disease, and the characteristic immunopathology associated with the progression to severe disease. This review aims to highlight these overlapping aspects of the highly pathogenic hCoVs—SARS-CoV, MERS-CoV, and SARS-CoV-2—briefly discussing the importance of an appropriately regulated immune response; how the immune response to these highly pathogenic hCoVs might be dysregulated through interferon (IFN) inhibition, antibody-dependent enhancement (ADE), and long non-coding RNA (lncRNA); and how these could link to the ensuing cytokine storm. The treatment approaches to highly pathogenic hCoV infections are discussed and it is suggested that a greater focus be placed on T-cell vaccines that elicit a cell-mediated immune response, using rapamycin as a potential agent to improve vaccine responses in the elderly and obese, and the potential of stapled peptides as antiviral agents.

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Bacterial Cyclic Dinucleotides and the cGAS–cGAMP–STING Pathway: A Role in Periodontitis?

Pathogens ◽

10.3390/pathogens10060675 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 10 (6) ◽

pp. 675

Author(s):

Samira Elmanfi ◽

Mustafa Yilmaz ◽

Wilson W. S. Ong ◽

Kofi S. Yeboah ◽

Herman O. Sintim ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Immune Response ◽

Periodontal Disease ◽

Innate Immune ◽

Host Cells ◽

Type I Interferons ◽

Type I ◽

Vaccine Adjuvants ◽

Cyclic Dinucleotides ◽

Sting Pathway

Host cells can recognize cytosolic double-stranded DNAs and endogenous second messengers as cyclic dinucleotides—including c-di-GMP, c-di-AMP, and cGAMP—of invading microbes via the critical and essential innate immune signaling adaptor molecule known as STING. This recognition activates the innate immune system and leads to the production of Type I interferons and proinflammatory cytokines. In this review, we (1) focus on the possible role of bacterial cyclic dinucleotides and the STING/TBK1/IRF3 pathway in the pathogenesis of periodontal disease and the regulation of periodontal immune response, and (2) review and discuss activators and inhibitors of the STING pathway as immune response regulators and their potential utility in the treatment of periodontitis. PubMed/Medline, Scopus, and Web of Science were searched with the terms “STING”, “TBK 1”, “IRF3”, and “cGAS”—alone, or together with “periodontitis”. Current studies produced evidence for using STING-pathway-targeting molecules as part of anticancer therapy, and as vaccine adjuvants against microbial infections; however, the role of the STING/TBK1/IRF3 pathway in periodontal disease pathogenesis is still undiscovered. Understanding the stimulation of the innate immune response by cyclic dinucleotides opens a new approach to host modulation therapies in periodontology.

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A probiotic fermented dairy product improves immune response to influenza vaccination in the elderly

Proceedings of The Nutrition Society ◽

10.1017/s0029665100590521 ◽

2008 ◽

Vol 67 (OCE5) ◽

Author(s):

J. Aubin ◽

M. Remigy ◽

L. Verseil ◽

R. Bourdet-Sicard ◽

S. Vaudaine ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Immune Response ◽

Influenza Vaccination ◽

Dairy Product ◽

The Elderly ◽

Fermented Dairy Product ◽

Fermented Dairy

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Effects of Long-Term Supplementation of Bovine Colostrum on the Immune System in Young Female Basketball Players. Randomized Trial

Nutrients ◽

10.3390/nu13010118 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 13 (1) ◽

pp. 118

Author(s):

Anna Skarpańska-Stejnborn ◽

Mirosława Cieślicka ◽

Hanna Dziewiecka ◽

Sławomir Kujawski ◽

Anita Marcinkiewicz ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Immune System ◽

Physical Exercise ◽

Exercise Program ◽

Bovine Colostrum ◽

Control Group ◽

System Function ◽

Basketball Players ◽

Immune System Function ◽

Experimental Group

An intensive physical exercise program could lead to a decrease in immune system function. Effects of long-term supplementation of bovine colostrum on the response of immune function on physical exercise test in athletes were examined. Twenty-seven elite female basketball players (age 16–19) were randomly assigned to either an experimental group or a control group. Eventually, n = 11 athletes completed intervention in the experimental group (3.2 g bovine colostrum orally twice a day for 24 weeks), while n = 9 athletes in the control group were given a placebo. Before the supplementation, after 3 and 6 months, subjects performed the physical exercise stress test. Before, just after, and 3 h after physical exercise testing, blood was drawn and immune system indicators were examined. Plasma interleukin (IL)-1alpha, IL-2, IL-10, IL-13, tumor necrosis factor (TNF) alpha, creatine kinase (CK MM), immunoglobulin G (IgG), insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF1), and WBC, lymphocyte (LYM), monocyte (MON), and granulocyte (GRA) were measured. A statistically significant change in IL-10 in response to the exercise program during the supplementation period in both groups was observed (p = 0.01). However, the results of the rest of the comparisons were statistically insignificant (p > 0.05). Contrary to our initial hypothesis, there were no significant effects of bovine supplementation on the dynamics of immune system function indicators.

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Immunocompetent Mouse Models in the Search for Effective Immunotherapy in Glioblastoma

Cancers ◽

10.3390/cancers13010019 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 13 (1) ◽

pp. 19

Author(s):

Roxanne Wouters ◽

Sien Bevers ◽

Matteo Riva ◽

Frederik De Smet ◽

An Coosemans

Keyword(s):

Immune Response ◽

Clinical Trials ◽

Mouse Models ◽

Standard Of Care ◽

Preclinical Studies ◽

Success Rates ◽

Immunocompetent Mouse ◽

Full Spectrum ◽

Effective Immune Response ◽

Radio Chemotherapy

Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most aggressive intrinsic brain tumor in adults. Despite maximal therapy consisting of surgery and radio/chemotherapy, GBM remains largely incurable with a median survival of less than 15 months. GBM has a strong immunosuppressive nature with a multitude of tumor and microenvironment (TME) derived factors that prohibit an effective immune response. To date, all clinical trials failed to provide lasting clinical efficacy, despite the relatively high success rates of preclinical studies to show effectivity of immunotherapy. Various factors may explain this discrepancy, including the inability of a single mouse model to fully recapitulate the complexity and heterogeneity of GBM. It is therefore critical to understand the features and limitations of each model, which should probably be combined to grab the full spectrum of the disease. In this review, we summarize the available knowledge concerning immune composition, stem cell characteristics and response to standard-of-care and immunotherapeutics for the most commonly available immunocompetent mouse models of GBM.

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