scholarly journals Benchmark levels for the consumptive water footprint of crop production for different environmental conditions: a case study for winter wheat in China

2016 ◽  
Vol 20 (11) ◽  
pp. 4547-4559 ◽  
Author(s):  
La Zhuo ◽  
Mesfin M. Mekonnen ◽  
Arjen Y. Hoekstra
Keyword(s):  
Environmental Factors ◽  
Winter Wheat ◽  
Crop Production ◽  
Water Footprint ◽  
Arid Zone ◽  
Southern China ◽  
Water Productivity ◽  
Climate Zones ◽  
Wheat Production ◽  
Growing Period

Abstract. Meeting growing food demands while simultaneously shrinking the water footprint (WF) of agricultural production is one of the greatest societal challenges. Benchmarks for the WF of crop production can serve as a reference and be helpful in setting WF reduction targets. The consumptive WF of crops, the consumption of rainwater stored in the soil (green WF), and the consumption of irrigation water (blue WF) over the crop growing period varies spatially and temporally depending on environmental factors like climate and soil. The study explores which environmental factors should be distinguished when determining benchmark levels for the consumptive WF of crops. Hereto we determine benchmark levels for the consumptive WF of winter wheat production in China for all separate years in the period 1961–2008, for rain-fed vs. irrigated croplands, for wet vs. dry years, for warm vs. cold years, for four different soil classes, and for two different climate zones. We simulate consumptive WFs of winter wheat production with the crop water productivity model AquaCrop at a 5 by 5 arcmin resolution, accounting for water stress only. The results show that (i) benchmark levels determined for individual years for the country as a whole remain within a range of ±20 % around long-term mean levels over 1961–2008, (ii) the WF benchmarks for irrigated winter wheat are 8–10 % larger than those for rain-fed winter wheat, (iii) WF benchmarks for wet years are 1–3 % smaller than for dry years, (iv) WF benchmarks for warm years are 7–8 % smaller than for cold years, (v) WF benchmarks differ by about 10–12 % across different soil texture classes, and (vi) WF benchmarks for the humid zone are 26–31 % smaller than for the arid zone, which has relatively higher reference evapotranspiration in general and lower yields in rain-fed fields. We conclude that when determining benchmark levels for the consumptive WF of a crop, it is useful to primarily distinguish between different climate zones. If actual consumptive WFs of winter wheat throughout China were reduced to the benchmark levels set by the best 25 % of Chinese winter wheat production (1224 m3 t−1 for arid areas and 841 m3 t−1 for humid areas), the water saving in an average year would be 53 % of the current water consumption at winter wheat fields in China. The majority of the yield increase and associated improvement in water productivity can be achieved in southern China.

scholarly journals Benchmark levels for the consumptive water footprint of crop production for different environmental conditions: a case study for winter wheat in China

2016 ◽  
Author(s):  
La Zhuo ◽  
Mesfin M. Mekonnen ◽  
Arjen Y. Hoekstra
Keyword(s):  
Environmental Factors ◽  
Winter Wheat ◽  
Crop Production ◽  
Water Footprint ◽  
Arid Zone ◽  
Southern China ◽  
Water Productivity ◽  
Climate Zones ◽  
Wheat Production ◽  
Growing Period

Abstract. Meeting growing food demands while simultaneously shrinking the water footprint (WF) of agricultural production is one of the greatest societal challenges. Benchmarks for the WF of crop production can serve as a reference and be helpful in setting WF reduction targets. The consumptive WF of crops, the consumption of rainwater stored in the soil (green WF) and the consumption of irrigation water (blue WF) over the crop growing period, varies spatially and temporally depending on environmental factors like climate and soil. The study explores which environmental factors should be distinguished when determining benchmark levels for the consumptive WF of crops. Hereto we determine benchmark levels for the consumptive WF of winter wheat production in China for all separate years in the period 1961–2008, for rain-fed versus irrigated croplands, for wet versus dry years, for warm versus cold years, for four different soil classes and for two different climate zones. We simulate consumptive WFs of winter wheat production with the crop water productivity model AquaCrop at a 5 by 5 arc min resolution, accounting for water stress only. The results show that (i) benchmark levels determined for individual years for the country as a whole remain within a range of ±20 % around long-term mean levels over 1961–2008; (ii) the WF benchmarks for irrigated winter wheat are 8–10 % larger than those for rain-fed winter wheat; (iii) WF benchmarks for wet years are 1–3 % smaller than for dry years, (iv) WF benchmarks for warm years are 7–8 % smaller than for cold years, (v) WF benchmarks differ by about 10–12 % across different soil texture classes; and (vi) WF benchmarks for the humid zone are 26–31 % smaller than for the arid zone, which has relatively higher reference evapotranspiration in general and lower yields in rain-fed fields. We conclude that when determining benchmark levels for the consumptive WF of a crop, it is useful to primarily distinguish between different climate zones. If actual consumptive WFs of winter wheat throughout China were reduced to the benchmark levels set by the best 25 % of Chinese winter wheat production (1224 m3 t−1 for arid areas and 841 m3 t−1 for humid areas), the water saving in an average year would be 53 % of the current water consumption at winter wheat fields in China. The majority of the yield increase and associated improvement in water productivity can be achieved in southern China.

scholarly journals Review: Climate change and the water footprint of wheat production in Zimbabwe

Water SA ◽  
2019 ◽  
Vol 45 (3 July) ◽  
Author(s):  
Simbarashe Govere ◽  
Justice Nyamangara ◽  
Emerson Z Nyakatawa
Keyword(s):  
Climate Change ◽  
Crop Production ◽  
Water Footprint ◽  
Water Productivity ◽  
Future Climate Change ◽  
Climate Change Scenarios ◽  
Crop Water ◽  
Wheat Production ◽  
Fertilization Effect ◽  
Impacts Of Climate Change

Reductions in the water footprint (WF) of crop production, that is, increasing crop water productivity (CWP), is touted as a universal panacea to meet future food demands in the context of global water scarcity. However, efforts to reduce the WF of crop production may be curtailed by the effects of climate change. This study reviewed the impacts of climate change on the WF of wheat production in Zimbabwe with the aim of identifying research gaps. Results of the review revealed limited local studies on the impacts of climate change on the WF of wheat production within Zimbabwe. Despite this, relevant global and regional studies suggest that climate change will likely result in a higher WF in Zimbabwe as well as at the global and regional level. These impacts will be due to reductions in wheat yields and increases in crop water requirements due to high temperatures, despite the CO2 fertilization effect. The implications of a higher WF of wheat production under future climate change scenarios in Zimbabwe may not be sustainable given the semi-arid status of the country. The study reviewed crop-level climate change adaptation strategies that might be implemented to lower the WF of wheat production in Zimbabwe.

scholarly journals Water footprint of crop production for different crop structures in the Hebei southern plain, North China

2016 ◽  
Author(s):  
Yingmin Chu ◽  
Yanjun Shen ◽  
Zaijian Yuan
Keyword(s):  
Winter Wheat ◽  
Crop Production ◽  
North China ◽  
Water Footprint ◽  
Groundwater Resources ◽  
Arable Land ◽  
Summer Maize ◽  
The North ◽  
Groundwater Overdraft ◽  
Southern Plain

Abstract. The North China Plain (NCP) is serious lack of fresh water resources, while crop production consumed about 75 % of the region's water. To estimate water consumption of different crops and crop structures in the NCP, the Hebei southern plain (HSP) was selected as a study area because it is a typical region of groundwater overdraft in the NCP. In this study, water footprint (WF) was being used which was consisted of green, blue and grey components. The results showed: (1) the WF of the main crops production was about 51.0 km3 in 2012 and winter wheat, vegetables and summer maize were in the top three leading among the main crops in the HSP, while the water footprint intensity (WFI) of cotton was the largest and vegetables were the smallest; (2) winter wheat and vegetables consumed the main groundwater and their blue water footprint (WFblue) accounted for 66.0 % of the total WFblue in the HSP; (3) the crop structure scenarios analysis indicated that, with about 20 % of arable land cultivating winter wheat-summer maize in rotation, 40 % spring maize, 10 % vegetables and 10 % fruiters can promote the sustainable utilization of groundwater resources, at the same time can ensure sufficient supply of food, vegetables and fruits in the HSP.

scholarly journals The Water Footprint of Global Food Production

Water ◽  
2020 ◽  
Vol 12 (10) ◽  
pp. 2696
Author(s):  
Mesfin M. Mekonnen ◽  
Winnie Gerbens-Leenes
Keyword(s):  
Agricultural Production ◽  
Food Production ◽  
Crop Production ◽  
Water Footprint ◽  
Water Productivity ◽  
Blue Water ◽  
Dietary Shifts ◽  
Global Food ◽  
Main Consumer ◽  
Future Population

Agricultural production is the main consumer of water. Future population growth, income growth, and dietary shifts are expected to increase demand for water. The paper presents a brief review of the water footprint of crop production and the sustainability of the blue water footprint. The estimated global consumptive (green plus blue) water footprint ranges from 5938 to 8508 km3/year. The water footprint is projected to increase by as much as 22% due to climate change and land use change by 2090. Approximately 57% of the global blue water footprint is shown to violate the environmental flow requirements. This calls for action to improve the sustainability of water and protect ecosystems that depend on it. Some of the measures include increasing water productivity, setting benchmarks, setting caps on the water footprint per river basin, shifting the diets to food items with low water requirements, and reducing food waste.

Agricultural infrastructure: the forgotten key driving force on crop-related water footprints and virtual water flows in developing countries: a case for China

2020 ◽  
Author(s):  
Hongrong Huang ◽  
La Zhuo ◽  
Pute Wu
Keyword(s):  
Developing Countries ◽  
Water Consumption ◽  
Environmental Sustainability ◽  
Crop Production ◽  
Water Footprint ◽  
Water Productivity ◽  
Virtual Water ◽  
High Water ◽  
North Coast ◽  
Water Flows

<p>Agricultural infrastructure plays important roles in boosting food production and trade system in developing countries, while as being a ‘grey solutions’, generates increasingly risks on the environmental sustainability. There is little information on impacts of agricultural infrastructure developments on water consumption and flows, (i.e. water footprint and virtual water flows) related to crop production, consumption and trade especially in developing countries with high water risk. Here we, taking mainland China over 2000-2017 as the study case, identified and evaluated the strengths and spatial heterogeneities in main socio-economic driving factors of provincial water footprints and inter-provincial virtual water flows related to three staple crops (rice, wheat and maize). For the first time, we consider irrigation (II), electricity (EI) and road infrastructures (RI) in the driving factor analysis through the extended STIRPAT (stochastic impacts by regression on population, affluence and technology) model. Results show that the II, EI and RI in China were expanded by 33.8 times, 4.5 times and 2.4 times, respectively by year 2017 compared to 2000. Although the II was the most critical driver to effectively reduce the per unit water footprint, especially the blue water footprint in crop production (i.e., increasing water efficiency), the developments of II led to the bigger total water consumption. Such phenomenon was observed in Jing-Jin region, North Coast and Northwest China with water resource shortage. The EI and RI had increasing effects on provincial virtual water export, and the corresponding driving strengths varied across spaces. Obviously, the visible effects from the agricultural infrastructures on regional water consumption, water productivity and virtual water patterns cannot be neglected. </p>

Impact of changing cropping pattern on the regional agricultural water productivity

2014 ◽  
Vol 153 (5) ◽  
pp. 767-778 ◽  
Author(s):  
S. K. SUN ◽  
P. T. WU ◽  
Y. B. WANG ◽  
X. N. ZHAO
Keyword(s):  
Water Scarcity ◽  
Crop Production ◽  
Water Footprint ◽  
Water Productivity ◽  
Irrigation District ◽  
Cropping Pattern ◽  
Agricultural Water ◽  
Cropping Patterns ◽  
Cash Crops ◽  
The Impact

SUMMARYWater scarcity is a major constraint of agricultural production in arid and semi-arid areas. In the face of future water scarcity, one possible way the agricultural sector could be adapted is to change cropping patterns and make adjustments for available water resources for irrigation. The present paper analyses the temporal evolution of cropping pattern from 1960 to 2008 in the Hetao Irrigation District (HID), China. The impact of changing cropping patterns on regional agricultural water productivity is evaluated from the water footprint (WF) perspective. Results show that the area under cash crops (e.g. sunflower and melon) has risen phenomenally over the study period because of increased economic returns pursued by farmers. Most of these cash crops have a smaller WF (high water productivity) than grain crops in HID. With the increase of area sown to cash crops, water productivity in HID increased substantially. Changing the cropping pattern has significant effects on regional crop water productivity: in this way, HID has increased the total crop production without increasing significantly the regional water consumption. The results of this case study indicate that regional agricultural water can be used effectively by properly planning crop areas and patterns under irrigation water limitations. However, there is a need to foster a cropping pattern that is multifunctional and sustainable, which can guarantee food security, enhance natural resource use and provide stable and high returns to farmers.

scholarly journals Studies on yield stability in autumn wheat species

2001 ◽  
pp. 61-66
Author(s):  
Erika Kutasy ◽  
József Csajbók
Keyword(s):  
Winter Wheat ◽  
Crop Production ◽  
Yield Stability ◽  
Regression Equations ◽  
Wheat Varieties ◽  
Wheat Production ◽  
Yield Level ◽  
Good Productivity ◽  
The Given ◽  
Winter Wheat Varieties

The environmental adaptability of crop production is basically determined by the selection of biological background (plant species and varieties) suitable for the region and the site. The sowing structure adapted to the ecological background increases the yield and decreases the yield fluctuation caused natural effects. Exact long-term trials are essential to develop variety structure of winter wheat production suitable for the given ecological conditions. We have examined the productivity and yield stability of genetically different state registered winter wheat varieties. We have compared the varieties’ yield results in plot trials, at similar agrotechnical conditions, in different cropyears. We have examined the absolute and relative (compared to the mean of varieties) yield of winter wheat varieties. We have valued the yield stability of genotypes with the help of analysis of variance and linear regression equations. We have defined the connection between productivity and yield stability of varieties. We have pointed out the varieties with good productivity and yield stability in given agroecological conditions.According to the results of our examinations the developing of variety structure suitable for the agroecological conditions could increase the potential and effective yield level of wheat production.

scholarly journals Water footprint of crop production for different crop structures in the Hebei southern plain, North China

2017 ◽  
Vol 21 (6) ◽  
pp. 3061-3069 ◽  
Author(s):  
Yingmin Chu ◽  
Yanjun Shen ◽  
Zaijian Yuan
Keyword(s):  
Winter Wheat ◽  
Crop Production ◽  
North China ◽  
Water Footprint ◽  
Groundwater Resources ◽  
Arable Land ◽  
Summer Maize ◽  
The North ◽  
Groundwater Overdraft ◽  
Southern Plain

Abstract. The North China Plain (NCP) has a serious shortage of freshwater resources, and crop production consumes approximately 75 % of the region's water. To estimate water consumption of different crops and crop structures in the NCP, the Hebei southern plain (HSP) was selected as a study area, as it is a typical region of groundwater overdraft in the NCP. In this study, the water footprint (WF) of crop production, comprised of green, blue and grey water footprints, and its annual variation were analyzed. The results demonstrated the following: (1) the WF from the production of main crops was 41.8 km3 in 2012. Winter wheat, summer maize and vegetables were the top water-consuming crops in the HSP. The water footprint intensity (WFI) of cotton was the largest, and for vegetables, it was the smallest; (2) the total WF, WFblue, WFgreen and WFgrey for 13 years (2000–2012) of crop production were 604.8, 288.5, 141.3 and 175.0 km3, respectively, with an annual downtrend from 2000 to 2012; (3) winter wheat, summer maize and vegetables consumed the most groundwater, and their blue water footprint (WFblue) accounted for 74.2 % of the total WFblue in the HSP; (4) the crop structure scenarios analysis indicated that, with approximately 20 % of arable land cultivated with winter wheat–summer maize in rotation, 38.99 % spring maize, 10 % vegetables and 10 % fruiters, a sustainable utilization of groundwater resources can be promoted, and a sufficient supply of food, including vegetables and fruits, can be ensured in the HSP.

scholarly journals WATER FOOTPRINT OF CROP PRODUCTION IN TEHRAN PROVINCE

2019 ◽  
Vol 17 ◽  
Author(s):  
Somayeh Rezaei Kalvani ◽  
Amir Hamzah Sharaai ◽  
Latifah Abd Manaf ◽  
Amir Hossein Hamidian
Keyword(s):  
Water Consumption ◽  
Water Scarcity ◽  
Crop Production ◽  
Agricultural Sector ◽  
Water Footprint ◽  
Water Productivity ◽  
Blue Water ◽  
Agricultural Water ◽  
Severe Water Stress ◽  
Tehran Province

Evaluation of supply chain of water consumption contributes toward reducing water scarcity, as it allows for increased water productivity in the agricultural sector. Water Footprint (WF) is a powerful tool for water management; it accounts for the volume of water consumption at high spatial and temporal resolution. The objective of this research is to investigate the water footprint trend of crop production in Tehran from 2008 to 2015 and to assess blue water scarcity in the agricultural sector. Water consumption of crop production was evaluated based on the WF method. Evapotranspiration was evaluated by applying the CROPWAT model. Blue water scarcity was evaluated using the blue water footprint-to-blue water availability formula. The results demonstrate that pistachio, cotton, walnut, almond, and wheat have a large WF, amounting to 11.111 m3/kg, 4,703 m3/kg, 3,932 m3/kg, 3,217 m3/kg, and 1.817 m3/kg, respectively. Agricultural blue water scarcity amounted to 0.6 (severe water stress class) (2015–2016). Agricultural water consumption in Tehran is unsustainable since it contributes to severe blue water scarcity. Tehran should reduce agricultural water scarcity by reducing the water footprint of the agricultural sector.

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