Communication in the Context of COVID

Effective communication in the context of COVID-19 is the key element that underlies school success, consisting of a complex repertoire of intentional actions capable of producing positive changes or transformations in the field of cognition, affect, and behavior, on the personality as a whole. The communication aims to be convincing by students taking over an idea, behavior, or attitude based on arguments, realistic evidence, and to determine involvement, trust, openness, and dedication in achieving the goal and persuasive through the ability to change certain ideas or behaviors through logos, pathos, and ethos. The teacher has not only the role of information, but also to communicate with the children in his class about values, ideals, attitudes with a role in their formation and development. Feedback becomes effective when students show intrinsic involvement in learning tasks.

Zooming in and Out: A Holistic Framework for Research on Maternal, Late Fetal, and Newborn Survival and Health

Research is needed to understand why some countries succeed in greater improvements maternal, late fetal and newborn health and reducing mortality than others. Pathways towards these health outcomes operate at many levels, making it difficult to understand which factors contribute most to these health improvements. Conceptual frameworks provide a cognitive means of rendering order to these factors, and how they interrelate to positively influence maternal, late fetal and newborn health. We developed a conceptual framework by integrating theories and frameworks from different disciplines to encapsulate the range of factors that explain reductions in maternal, late fetal and newborn mortality and improvements in health. We developed our framework iteratively, combining our interdisciplinary research team’s knowledge, experience, and review of the literature. We present a framework that includes health policy and systems levers (or intentional actions that policy makers can implement) to improve maternal, late fetal and newborn health; service delivery and coverage of interventions across the continuum of care, and epidemiological and behavioural risk factors. The framework also considers the role of context in influencing for whom and where health and non-health efforts have the most impact, to recognise ‘the causes of the causes’ at play at the individual/household, community, national and transnational levels. Our framework holistically reflects the range of interrelated factors influencing improved maternal, late fetal and newborn health and survival. The framework lends itself to studying how different factors work together to influence these outcomes using an array of methods. Such research should inform future efforts to improve maternal, late fetal and newborn health and survival in different contexts. By re-orienting research in this way, we hope to equip policymakers and practitioners alike with the insight necessary to make the world a safer and fairer place for mothers and their babies.

‘Counterfinality’ in sociological theory: Reconceptualization of the concept

Counterfinality is defined as unintended consequences of the uncoordinated actions of rationally acting individuals. Even before the concept was introduced by Sartre and developed by Elster, counterfinality was considered by many scholars. Some defined counterfinality as a type of social paradoxes and dilemmas, others - as an outcome of social interaction. Description and analysis of such social contradictions and paradoxes can be found in the works of Hobbes, Mandeville, Smith, Marx and Hegel. In the 20th century, sociologists also considered the issue of unintended consequences. Many classic papers of Merton contributed to the sociological analysis of the unintended consequences of intentional actions. Subsequent works focused on their classifications, and the phenomenon of counterfinality was highlighted in almost every classification. The term counterfinality was introduced by Sartre as an appendage of history, an unforeseen consequence of many interactions. The sociological study of counterfinality was initiated by Elster. He analyzes counterfinality not within the functionalist paradigm, but in the methodological individualism perspective, and for him, counterfinality acts as a basis for social change. The authors analysis of the main ideas of Sartre, Elster and other authors on counterfinality reveals its distinctive features in general and in the sociological analysis of social action in particular. The author argues that today the counterfinality theory consists mainly of responses and criticism of the ideas of Sartre and Elster, and that further sociological research should focus on conditions, features and consequences of counterfinality, and on its empirical indicators.

Listening to Older Adults: A Qualitative Analysis of Advice Given During COVID-19

The life experience of older adults offers a unique perspective of coping through historical crises. Specific advice offered by older adults is generally underrepresented in the literature. This qualitative study explores advice offered by older adults to others on how to cope through the COVID-19 pandemic as well as advice for the community about the needs of older adults. A Midwestern sample of 67 older adults aged 70-97 completed one phone interview in June of 2020 as part of a larger study about their experiences with social distancing and isolation. Participants were asked what advice they would give to others during the pandemic and what advice they would give to communities and families about the needs of older adults during the pandemic. Transcripts of these conversations were coded using in vivo and holistic coding as first-cycle methods. These codes were then analyzed using pattern coding as a second-cycle method. Results indicated older adults offered advice along three domains: fostering physical and mental wellbeing, promoting positive life perspectives, and maintaining connections. Advice to communities regarding the needs of older adults included having a selfless attitude and taking intentional actions like grocery shopping and writing letters. However, older adults also recommended avoiding extremes to allow them to maintain their independence and preserve physical distance for safety. Older adults utilized their life perspective and their own coping strategies when offering advice. Future research should evaluate the effectiveness of the advice given and how likely that the advice will be utilized by others.

Judgments in causal chains: The impact of positive and negative motives and outcomes on lay attributions

<p>Research on attributions about several events in causal chains has focused on chains ending in negative outcomes and has not examined positive outcomes and actions (e.g., Hilton, McClure, & Sutton, 2010; Lagnado & Channon, 2008; McClure, Hilton, & Sutton, 2007). On the other hand, research on attributions for positive and negative events has examined judgments about one event in the chain and has not examined effects on other causes in the chain or made comparative judgments about physical causes that produce similar effects to actions (e.g., Alicke, 1992; Alicke, Rose, & Bloom, 2011). This thesis integrates these two lines of research. Six studies examined judgments about two consecutive events (intentional actions and physical events) in chains leading to positive as well as negative outcomes. The intentional action was the same action (e.g. a man started a fire) that differed in motive (positive or negative). The physical event had the same causal effect as the action (e.g., a lightning strike started a fire), or was a physical event (e.g., strong wind) that occurred later in the causal chain. The results replicate previous findings that when both actions and outcomes are negative, participants rate intentional actions more causal and blameworthy than physical events. However, when the intended outcomes fail to eventuate or positively motivated actions pre-empt positive outcomes, two distinct patterns emerged: A mismatch effect that explains the cause of the outcome; and a motive effect that explains judgments of culpability (measured by judgments of blame and punitiveness in these studies). Specifically, judgments of cause, responsibility, intentionality and foresight follow the same pattern that reflects the congruence between the valence of the agent‟s motive and the outcome. In contrast, judgments of culpability follow a different pattern where motive and outcome information have independent effects. Notably, it is the moral intent of actions that primarily determines judgments of culpability. The valence of the outcome plays a secondary role and amplifies ratings. These results show that the important psychological and legal concepts of intentionality, abnormality, foresight, proximity, and outcome information are core determinants in lay attributions (e.g., Hart & Honoré, 1985; Heider, 1958; Kelley, 1973; Weiner, 1995). But it is valence that plays the critical role in shaping lay reasoning. Several theoretical approaches applied in previous research on causal chains are examined, for example, Alicke's (2000) culpable control model, Tetlock's (2002) social functionalist model, and Spellman's (1997) crediting causality model. Yet none of the theories are able to account for the findings for chains that include positive actions or positive outcomes. The theoretical scope of this thesis was expanded in Study 6 to include research on the folk concept of intentionality, hindsight, and actor-observer biases (Fischhoff, 1975; Kashima, McKintyre, & Clifford, 1998; Malle & Knobe, 1997; Malle, Knobe, & Nelson, 2007). The results are interpreted in terms of Sloman, Fernbach and Ewings' (2012) causal model of intentionality.</p>

Judgments in causal chains: The impact of positive and negative motives and outcomes on lay attributions

<p>Research on attributions about several events in causal chains has focused on chains ending in negative outcomes and has not examined positive outcomes and actions (e.g., Hilton, McClure, & Sutton, 2010; Lagnado & Channon, 2008; McClure, Hilton, & Sutton, 2007). On the other hand, research on attributions for positive and negative events has examined judgments about one event in the chain and has not examined effects on other causes in the chain or made comparative judgments about physical causes that produce similar effects to actions (e.g., Alicke, 1992; Alicke, Rose, & Bloom, 2011). This thesis integrates these two lines of research. Six studies examined judgments about two consecutive events (intentional actions and physical events) in chains leading to positive as well as negative outcomes. The intentional action was the same action (e.g. a man started a fire) that differed in motive (positive or negative). The physical event had the same causal effect as the action (e.g., a lightning strike started a fire), or was a physical event (e.g., strong wind) that occurred later in the causal chain. The results replicate previous findings that when both actions and outcomes are negative, participants rate intentional actions more causal and blameworthy than physical events. However, when the intended outcomes fail to eventuate or positively motivated actions pre-empt positive outcomes, two distinct patterns emerged: A mismatch effect that explains the cause of the outcome; and a motive effect that explains judgments of culpability (measured by judgments of blame and punitiveness in these studies). Specifically, judgments of cause, responsibility, intentionality and foresight follow the same pattern that reflects the congruence between the valence of the agent‟s motive and the outcome. In contrast, judgments of culpability follow a different pattern where motive and outcome information have independent effects. Notably, it is the moral intent of actions that primarily determines judgments of culpability. The valence of the outcome plays a secondary role and amplifies ratings. These results show that the important psychological and legal concepts of intentionality, abnormality, foresight, proximity, and outcome information are core determinants in lay attributions (e.g., Hart & Honoré, 1985; Heider, 1958; Kelley, 1973; Weiner, 1995). But it is valence that plays the critical role in shaping lay reasoning. Several theoretical approaches applied in previous research on causal chains are examined, for example, Alicke's (2000) culpable control model, Tetlock's (2002) social functionalist model, and Spellman's (1997) crediting causality model. Yet none of the theories are able to account for the findings for chains that include positive actions or positive outcomes. The theoretical scope of this thesis was expanded in Study 6 to include research on the folk concept of intentionality, hindsight, and actor-observer biases (Fischhoff, 1975; Kashima, McKintyre, & Clifford, 1998; Malle & Knobe, 1997; Malle, Knobe, & Nelson, 2007). The results are interpreted in terms of Sloman, Fernbach and Ewings' (2012) causal model of intentionality.</p>

Evaluating the sufficiency of proposed security measures in favour of building objects

Security is understood as one of the basic life needs of people. However, it is necessary to realize that security is a natural quality of the environment where people live and is designated as a security environment. The need for sacurity is part of implementing sacurity measures that are created in compliance with a certain level of knowledge and needs. The content of this process can be characterized as a set of answers to primary questions (What is to be protected? – protected interest, Why to protect?, What to protect from? – threats) and secondary questions (Who will provide the protection?, How will the protection be provided?, When will the protection be provided?, By means of what will the protection be provided?, What price will the protection be provided for? etc.). From this viewpoint it is necessary to pay attention primarily to the problems concerning property protection from intentional actions focusing on protecting a particular building onject. In case of building objects it is primarily about the protection of tangible and intangible properties that are part of a particular limited area (mostly a building object) that is in possession or administration of a particular state or a private subject. The issues are dealt with by legal regulations, technical standards and various technical books. These usually concentrate on a particular area, kind of a building object and/or environment. However, none of them focuses on the property protection in a complex way and does not provide a satisfactory answer to the question "How to create protection systems in view of their sufficiency, complexity and balance in the technical and economic spheres?" That is why it is a social interest to search for new standardized procedures based on exact methods by means of which it will be possible, in empiric or intuitive ways, to exactly evaluate the effectivness of the existing or proposed property protection systems, including the formal desposition of results in project solutions Keywords: Project, Project documentation, Attack, Intervention and Detection time, Resistance of a building object, Modeling, Simulating

Harmonisasi masyarakat plural: Praktik sosial di sekolah teologi untuk membangun nasionalisme Indonesia yang inklusif

Indonesian Nationalism is historic and ethical, not natural. It was born out of a shared history of various groups in Indonesia in their struggle against the colonials, and of an ethical decision that those groups consciously took to become one nation. Such an inclusive nationalism must be intentionally developed structurally, systemically, and continuously by all the elements of the Indonesian nation, lest it would be wiped out by centralism, primordialism disguising in the form of dominant-religion-based nationalism, and unjust distribution of membership along with all its respected rights. Using the analysis from the perspective of Character Ethics, this article shows that theological schools have an important role in the character formation of inclusive nationalism through social practice in theological schools. Social practice is not simply a series of activities, but a series of intentional actions which are done together repeatedly by the whole members of the community. The history of an institution that was intended to prepare pastor assistants in Yogyakarta until it becomes the Faculty of Theology, Universitas Kristen Duta Wacana, at present is presented in this article as a model of effective social practice in the formation of inclusive nationalism. The research focuses on the intersubjective relations between all members of the Duta Wacana community, which reflects the very rich and deeply human experience, that takes place in the local everyday life, including various policies that are born out of that relationship with the religious-cultural identity that becomes its context. AbstrakNasionalisme Indonesia bersifat historis dan etis, bukan alami. Ia lahir dari sejarah bersama kelompok-kelompok bangsa Indonesia melawan penjajah kolonial dan dari keputusan etis yang mereka ambil untuk menjadi satu bangsa Indonesia. Nasionalisme yang inklusif semacam itu harus dengan sengaja ditumbuh-kembangkan secara terstruktur, sistemik, dan berkesinambungan oleh segenap elemen bangsa agar tidak tergerus oleh ancaman sentralisme, primordialisme yang tersamar dalam bentuk nasionalisme berbasis agama dominan, dan ketidak-adilan distribusi keanggotaan beserta semua hak yang mengikutinya. Dengan menggunakan analisis dari perspektif Etika Karakter, tulisan ini menunjukkan bahwa sekolah-sekolah teologi memiliki peran penting untuk membentuk karakter nasionalisme yang inklusif melalui praktik sosial di sekolah-sekolah teologi terkait. Praktik sosial bukanlah sekadar rangkaian kegiatan, melainkan rangkaian tindakan yang dengan sengaja dilakukan secara bersama-sama berulang-kali oleh segenap anggota komunitas. Sejarah lembaga pendidikan asisten pendeta di Yogyakarta hingga menjadi Fakultas Teologi Universitas Kristen Duta Wacana diangkat dalam tulisan ini sebagai sebuah model praktik sosial yang terbukti efektif membentuk nasionalisme yang inklusif. Penelitian difokuskan pada relasi intersubjektif di antara segenap anggota komunitas ini, yang mencerminkan pengalaman insani yang sangat kaya dan mendalam, yang terjadi sehari-harinya dalam konteks lokalitas hidup, termasuk berbagai kebijaksanaan yang lahir dari relasionalitas tersebut serta identitas kultural religius yang menjadi konteksnya.

Evidence for a dual-process account of over-imitation: Children imitate anti- and prosocial models equally, but prefer prosocial models once they become aware of multiple solutions to a task

Children imitate actions that are perceivably unnecessary to achieve the instrumental goal of an action sequence, a behavior termed over-imitation. It is debated whether this behavior is based on the motivation to follow behavioral norms and affiliate with the model or whether it can be interpreted in terms of a behavioral heuristic to copy observed intentional actions without questioning the purpose of each action step. To resolve this question, we tested whether preschool-aged children (N = 89) over-imitate a prosocial model, a helper in a prior third-party moral transgression, but refuse to over-imitate an antisocial model, the perpetrator of the moral transgression. After first observing an inefficient way to extract a reward from a puzzle box from either a perpetrator or a helper, children over-imitated the perpetrator to the same degree as they over-imitated the helper. In a second phase, children were then presented the efficient solution by the respective other model, i.e. the helper or the perpetrator. Over-imitation rates then dropped in both conditions, but remained significantly higher than in a baseline condition only when children had observed the prosocial model demonstrate the inefficient action sequence and the perpetrator performed the efficient solution. In contrast, over-imitation dropped to baseline level when the perpetrator had modelled the inefficient actions and the prosocial model subsequently showed children the efficient solution. In line with a dual-process account of over-imitation, results speak to a strong initial tendency to imitate perceivably irrelevant actions regardless of the model. Imitation behavior is then adjusted according to social motivations after deliberate consideration of different options to attain the goal.

Dogs distinguish human intentional and unintentional action

When dogs interact with humans, they often show appropriate reactions to human intentional action. But it is unclear from these everyday observations whether the dogs simply respond to the action outcomes or whether they are able to discriminate between different categories of actions. Are dogs able to distinguish intentional human actions from unintentional ones, even when the action outcomes are the same? We tested dogs’ ability to discriminate these action categories by adapting the so-called “Unwilling vs. Unable” paradigm. This paradigm compares subjects’ reactions to intentional and unintentional human behaviour. All dogs received three conditions: In the unwilling-condition, an experimenter intentionally withheld a reward from them. In the two unable-conditions, she unintentionally withheld the reward, either because she was clumsy or because she was physically prevented from giving the reward to the dog. Dogs clearly distinguished in their spontaneous behaviour between unwilling- and unable-conditions. This indicates that dogs indeed distinguish intentional actions from unintentional behaviour. We critically discuss our findings with regard to dogs’ understanding of human intentional action.