A Screening for Virus Infections in Eight Herds of Semi-domesticated Eurasian Tundra Reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus) in Norway, 2013–2018

Background: Previous serological screenings have indicated that Eurasian semi-domesticated tundra reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus) in Finnmark, Northern Norway, are exposed to alphaherpesvirus, gammaherpesvirus and pestivirus. Alphaherpesvirus (i.e., Cervid herpesvirus 2; CvHV2) has been identified as the transmissible component of infectious keratoconjunctivitis (IKC). Limited knowledge exists on the presence and prevalence of virus infections in other herding regions in Norway, which are hosting ~67,000 semi-domesticated reindeer and have contact with other species and populations of wildlife and livestock than those present in Finnmark.Methods: Blood samples (n = 618) were obtained over five winter seasons (2013–2018), from eight different herds representing summer pasture districts in Tana, Lakselv, Tromsø, Lødingen, Hattfjelldal, Fosen, Røros, and Filefjell, distributed from North to South of the reindeer herding regions in Norway. Blood samples were investigated for specific antibodies against five viral pathogen groups, alphaherpesvirus, gammaherpesvirus (viruses in the malignant catarrhal fever group; MCFV), pestivirus, bluetongue virus (BTV), and Schmallenberg virus (SBV), by using commercial multispecies serological tests (ELISA). In addition, swab samples obtained from the nasal mucosal membrane from 486 reindeer were investigated by PCR for parapoxvirus-specific DNA.Results: Antibodies against aphaherpesvirus and MCFV were found in all eight herds, with a total prevalence of 42% (range 21–62%) and 11% (range 2–15%), respectively. Anti-Pestivirus antibodies were detected in five of eight herds, with a total prevalence of 19% (range 0–52%), with two of the herds having a particularly high seroprevalence. Antibodies against BTV or SBV were not detected in any of the animals. Parapoxvirus-specific DNA was detected in two animals representing two different herds in Finnmark.Conclusions: This study confirmed that alphaherpesvirus and MCFV are enzootic throughout the geographical reindeer herding regions in Norway, and that pestivirus is present in most of the herds, with varying seroprevalence. No exposure to BTV and SBV was evident. This study also indicated that semi-domesticated reindeer in Finnmark are exposed to parapoxvirus without disease outbreaks being reported from this region.

IMMUNOBIOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF AN ASSOCIATED VACCINE AGAINST IN-FECTIOUS KERATOCONJUNCTIVITIS OF CATTLE BASED ON ANTIGENS OF BACTE-RIA MORAXELLA BOVIS AND MORAXELLA BOVOCULI

An associated vaccine against infectious keratoconjunctivitis in cattle based on the antigens of the bacteria Moraxella bovis and Moraxella bovoculi is presented. As antigens, the vaccine con-tains formalin-inactivated cell suspensions of bacterial strains Moraxella bovis «G97-VNIVI» and Moraxella bovoculi «SH-CH6-DEP» taken in the same proportions and the adsorbent is 6 % alumi-num hydroxide gel. The results of studying the immunobiological properties of an associated vaccine against cat-tle ICC based on antigens of bacteria Moraxella bovis and Moraxella bovoculi are presented. The data obtained show that the associated vaccine remained sterile, harmless and antigenically active during the observation period.

Infectious keratoconjunctivitis in red deer (Cervus elaphus) in Poland – A case report

Infectious keratoconjunctivitis (IKC) has not been observed in European deer (Cervus elaphus). Our case concerned two red deer bulls in a natural environment, which had orientation disorders and/or circle movement. A detailed post-mortem examination of one of the bulls revealed extensive conjunctivitis in both eyes, clouding and ulceration of the cornea. There were no lesions in the other organs, particularly in the central nervous system (CNS). The histopathological examination of the eyeballs showed corneal epithelium erosions and vascularisation and an inflammatory infiltration of the stroma. Descemet’s membrane was found to be disrupted and the corneal stroma was fused with the iris. The remaining structure of the eye did not show any lesions. Furthermore, the polymerase chain reaction analysis for OvHV-1, BHV-1, BHV-5, CapHV-1, CcHV-1, and EHV-1 showed negative results. In the agar culture, only single bacteria were present. There were no Thelazia spp. worms in the conjunctival sac, but numerous Lipoptena cervi flies were present on the skin in the eye region and on the corneal surface. The findings of our case study and those reported in the literature suggest that IKC is a polyetiological disease, where the composition of the pathogenic agents may differ from case to case. The present study suggests that the mechanical irritation of L. cervi parasites could be a contributing factor to the corneal damage, infection and chronic inflammation resulting in a loss of vision in red deer.

Experience in conducting veterinary-sanitary and zoohygienic surveys of farms that are unfavorable for bacterial infections of cattle

The article presents the results of veterinary-sanitary and zoohygienic examination of the farm that is unfavorable for bacterial infections-pasteurellosis, moraxellosis, escherichiosis, and other pathologies. There is a high incidence of mastitis and endometritis in cows, and gastrointestinal and respiratory diseases in young animals. 32,6 «marker points» of violations of conditions of keeping, feeding and exploitation of animals were identified. Recommendations are given for the elimination of violations, after which the incidence of respiratory diseases in calves decreased by 48,2%, gastrointestinal diseases – by 93,0%, the manifestation of infectious keratoconjunctivitis caused by moracella decreased by 12,0%, and the incidence of chronic endometritis in cows decreased by XNUMX%. The farm was recovered from clinical, subclinical mastitis and postpartum endometritis.

Etiopathogenetic specificity and prospects of phage therapy in infectious keratoconjunctivitis in cattle

Infectious bovine keratoconjunctivitis (IBK) is a bacterial eye disease affecting cattle worldwide. The main etiological role in IBK belongs to Moraxella spp. (including in associations with Staphylococcus spp., Streptococcus spp., Pseudomonas aeruginosa, E. coli, Proteus). Persistence factors and antimicrobial resistance of these bacteria, reduce the effectiveness of traditional treatment measures for IBK. New strategies for combating bacterial infections set up prospects for the use of bacteriophages. The paper presents data substantiating the relevance of the development of a therapeutic and prophylactic method of phage processing and an agent based on lytically properties of bacteriophages to combat infectious keratoconjunctivitis in cattle.

Geomatics and EO Data to Support Wildlife Diseases Assessment at Landscape Level: A Pilot Experience to Map Infectious Keratoconjunctivitis in Chamois and Phenological Trends in Aosta Valley (NW Italy)

Geomatics and satellite remote sensing offer useful analysis tools for several technical-scientific fields. This work, with reference to a regional case of study, investigates remote sensing potentialities for describing relationships between environment and diseases affecting wildlife at landscape level in the light of climate change effects onto vegetation. Specifically, the infectious keratoconjunctivitis (IKC) of chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra L.) in Aosta Valley (NW Italy) was investigated at the regional level. IKC (Mycoplasma conjunctivae) is a contagious disease for domestic and wild ruminants (Caprinae and Ovinae). Two types of analysis were performed: one aimed at exploring by remotely sensed data phenological metrics (PMs) and evapotranspiration (ET) trends of vegetation in the area; one investigating the correlation between PMs and ET, versus IKC prevalence. The analysis was based on TERRA MODIS image time series ranging from 2000 to 2019. Ground data about IKC were available for a shorter time range: 2009–2019. Consequently, PMs and ET trend investigations were focused on the whole times range (2000–2019); conversely, correlation analysis was achieved with reference to the reduced 2009–2019 period. The whole study was based on freely available data from public archives. MODIS products, namely MOD13Q1 v.6 and MOD16A2, were used to derive PM and ET trends, respectively. Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) Digital Terrain Model (DTM) was used to describe local topography; CORINE Land Cover map was adopted to describe land use classes. PMs and ET (as derivable from EO data) proved to significantly changed their values in the last 20 years, with a continuous progressive trend. As far as correlation analysis was concerned, ET and some PMs (specifically, End of Season (EOS) and Length of Season (LOS) proved significantly condition IKC prevalence. According to results, the proposed methodology can be retained as an effective tool for supporting public health and eco-pathological sectors. Specifically, it can be intended for a continuous monitoring of effects that climatic dynamics determine onto wild animals in the Alpine area, included diseases and zoonosis, moving future environmental management and planning towards the One Health perspective.

Ocular Histopathological Findings in Semi-Domesticated Eurasian Tundra Reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus) with Infectious Keratoconjunctivitis after Experimental Inoculation with Cervid Herpesvirus 2

Infectious keratoconjunctivitis (IKC) is a common transmissible ocular disease in semi-domesticated Eurasian tundra reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus). In large outbreaks, IKC may affect tens of animals in a herd, with the most severe cases often requiring euthanasia due to the destruction of the affected eyes and permanent blindness. An experimental inoculation with cervid herpesvirus 2 (CvHV2), alone or in combination with Moraxella bovoculi, demonstrated that CvHV2 has the ability to cause clinical signs of IKC in previously unexposed reindeer. Tissues collected from upper and lower eyelids, lacrimal gland and cornea, were processed for light and transmission electron microscopy. Histopathological analysis of the eyes inoculated with CvHV2 showed widespread and severe pathological findings. Mucosal tissues from these eyes showed fibrinous and purulent exudates, hyperemia, hemorrhages, necrosis, vascular thrombosis, vascular necrosis, infiltration of mononuclear cells and neutrophils, and lymphoid follicle reaction, which matches the described histopathology of IKC in reindeer. Characteristic alpha-herpesvirus particles matching the size and morphology of CvHV2 were identified by transmission electron microscopy in the conjunctival tissue. The quantification of viral particles by qPCR revealed high copy numbers of viral DNA in all CvHV2 inoculated eyes, but also in the non-inoculated eyes of the same animals. The histopathology of eye tissues obtained from the CvHV2 inoculated reindeer and the lack of inflammation from bacterial infection, together with the detection of CvHV2 DNA in swabs from the inoculated and non-inoculated eyes of the same animals, verified that CvHV2 was the primary cause of the observed histopathological changes.

Ovine infectious keratoconjunctivitis in sheep: the farmer’s perspective

The objective of this study was to gather current, farmer-reported data on the frequency of occurrence, risk factors and treatment practices for the sheep eye disease, ovine infectious keratoconjunctivitis (OIKC).A questionnaire regarding eye disease in sheep was completed by 135 farmers from four livestock markets. Most farmers (87%) had observed OIKC in their flock, 88% of these within the last 2 years.Farmers reported observing most cases in the winter months (51%) and fewest in the summer (10%). They proposed housing and forage feeding from racks as factors associated with OIKC.A variety of treatment protocols were used by farmers. The three most popular treatments used were: cloxacillin eye ointment, intramuscular oxytetracycline injection and topical tetracycline spray applied to the eye. Only 62% of treatments were considered very effective by the farmers, with no difference in farmer perceived efficacy between these three most commonly used treatments (p=0.6).Farmers used 15 different terms to describe a photograph of a sheep with OIKC, including many colloquial terms. We hypothesise that this could result in communication problems between veterinary surgeons and farmers.