PARTICIPATION OF PEASANTS OF THE SIMBIRSK VOLGA REGION IN REVOLUTIONARY AND TERRORIST ACTIVITIES CARRIED OUT BY THE SOCIALIST REVOLUTIONARY PARTY (1905–1907)

In the second half of the XIX century, revolutionary terrorism emerged in the territory of the Russian Empire. This particular kind of socio-political violence was promoted in those years by some populist groups that worked primarily in Moscow and St. Petersburg, for example, the Ishutin circle, which consisted mainly of students. One of its participants, a former student D. Karakozov, shot at the Russian Emperor Alexander II 155 years ago in April 1866 in St. Petersburg. The most famous “revolutionary terrorists” of Russia were members of the largest Russian opposition political organization of the XIX century, “Narodnaya Volya”, most of whom were, as one used to say then, raznochinets. Revolutionary terrorism in the empire reached its peak in the first years of the XX century (1902–1907), when it became part of the strategy and tactics of a number of opposition political parties and organizations of neo-populist orientation. They acted both in the national regions of the country (Little Russia, Transcaucasia) and in Russian capitals and regions. First of all, this has to do with the All-Russian Party of Socialist Revolutionaries (SRs). At the same time, in the territory of the Russian provinces in the era of brutal revolutionary terrorism in the country, not only the Socialist revolutionaries had their revolutionary-terrorist (combat) formations. So, during this period, terrorist units were created by the SR Maximalists who left the party during the First Russian Revolution and contributed to the ideological and organizational split of the Social Revolutionaries. In the same years, various anarchist structures had combat organizations. Having become a significant phenomenon of the socio-political life of a huge country, terrorism drew representatives of different social groups of the population into its practice. What was the role of the peasantry in the Socialist-Revolutionary terror? The author gives examples where the peasants of the Simbirsk Volga region took part in carrying out terrorist attacks. The researcher concludes that Russian peasants were among the active participants in combat units, which is clearly seen in the examples of combat structures of Simbirsk provincial organization of the Socialist-Revolutionary Party, in the ranks of which, for example, in rural areas, there were combat squads consisting mainly of peasants.

ABOUT THE MIDDLE VOLGA PERIOD IN THE LIFE OF AN OUTSTANDING BIBLIOGRAPHER AND WRITER A.S. POLYAKOV

In August 2021, the cultural community of St. Petersburg celebrated the 265th anniversary of St. Petersburg State Theater Library, which is known worldwide as the richest repository of materials about the theater and for the theater. It has been collecting its unique fund, including a number of rare and valuable collections, since the XVIII century. The author’s research attention is focused on the facts of the Middle Volga period in A.S. Polyakov’s biography – the legend of one of the country’s oldest libraries. After the Bolsheviks came to power in Russia in 1918–1923, Alexander Sergeevich Polyakov, working as the head of this book depository, largely determined its modern multifunctional appearance. During this difficult period in the life of the state and the society, with great enthusiasm the talented writer edited several different print media, the most famous of which was one of the first theatrical magazines of the Soviet Russia, “The Biryuch of Petrograd State Theaters”. Alexander Polyakov was not a native of St. Petersburg. His small homeland is the Middle Volga region. The author explores the childhood and youth years of the future bibliophile and writer, which he spent in Simbirsk and Kazan governorates. The researcher tells that Alexander was not only born and brought up in the Volga region, but also studied at Simbirsk Classical Gymnasium and the Imperial Kazan University. The article gives some facts about an active participation of this native of Simbirsk in the socio-political life of the Middle Volga region which deserve special attention. For example, in 1901–1904 A.S. Polyakov played a major role in the creation of Kazan and Simbirsk organizations of the Party of Socialist Revolutionaries (SRs). In 1905, he was one of the most famous participants of the First Russian Revolution in the region. So, being under the tacit supervision of the police, Polyakov at that time constantly spoke at meetings and rallies in the town of Simbirsk and some uyezds of Simbirsk province, actively participated in agitation events of social revolutionaries of various kinds. In 1906, a young native of the Volga region moved to an illegal position, and then secretly left the Volga region. In 1907, the future outstanding bibliographer was detained by the police in St. Petersburg and sent into administrative exile. The article also provides previously little-known facts of his personal life. At this, the author tells about Polyakov’s parents and other family members. The specialist paid special attention to his wife, Elizaveta Polyakova (Dubova), a native of the Middle Volga region, who was a St. Petersburg student and a member of the Socialist Revolutionary Party. The young revolutionary was repeatedly brought to administrative responsibility and after the defeat of the revolution of 1905–1907 was exiled to the Eastern Siberia.

От Уполномоченного императорского российского правительства в Монголии И. Я. Коростовца до Уполномоченного НКИД РСФСР в Монголии О. И. Макстенека: к 100-летию российско-монгольских дипломатических отношений

Introduction. An urgent issue of Mongolian studies today is the role of Russian-Mongolian diplomatic relations in promoting the statehood of Mongolia in the first quarter of the twentieth century. The revolutionalry movement in Inner Asia, in particular, and the social-political history of modern Mongolia, in general, are closely associated with the efforts of Russian diplomacy and, especially, with a number of diplomats who greatly contributed to the promotion of Mongolian direction of the Russian politics in the East. The aim of the present article is the study of the activities of Russian diplomats, namely I. Ya. Korostovets, the Plenipotentiary of the Imperial Russian Government in Mongolia, and O. I. Makstenek, the Representative of the People’s Commissariat of Foreign Affairs of the RSFSR in Mongolia. Accordingly, the research has been conducted along the following lines: i) history of the issue, ii) examination of 1912 Russian-Mongolian agreement, iii) description of the events in Outer Mongolia between 1917 and 1920, and iv) analysis of Makstenek’s report as a source on the history of Mongolian Revolution of 1921 and the Soviet-Chinese relations. Conclusions.Both Korostovets, on behalf of the Russian Imperial Government, and Makstenek, on behalf of the RSFSR, played a significant role in establishing the regional system of international relations in the Baikal region. The 1912 Russian-Mongolian Agreement, which was in fact the result of Korostovets’ efforts, was instrumental in promoting Mongolia as a subject of international law and in initiating the movement of Mongolians to their de facto and de jure independence from China. Makstenek’s report shows much effort the Soviet diplomat took in preparing the Mongolian Revolution of 1921. Besides receiving and delegating Mongolian revolutionaries to Soviet Russia, taking an active part in preparations to the First Congress of the Mongolian People’s Revolutionary Party and in the formation of military detachments of Mongolian People’s Revolutionary Army, Makstenek conducted negotiations with the Chinese authorities in Urga and Maimachen, i.e. in fact initiated the diplomatic proceedings designed to prepare the presence of Soviet troops in Mongolia.

Rules and Dominant Party Regimes

This chapter examines how rules have operated in two electoral authoritarian dominant party regimes, Malaysia under Mahathir (1981–2003) and Mexico under the Institutional Revolutionary Party (1929–2000). The nature of the party, one designed to participate in a competitive electoral process (even if unfair because it is tilted in favour of the ruling party), is an important factor in shaping the rules and how they worked. The fact that one is a parliamentary and the other a presidential system also provides scope to see how institutions affect rules and their performance.

The Anti-Bureaucratic Ghost in China's Bureaucratic Machine

The Chinese Communist Party's (CCP) ideology, rooted in its foundational struggles, explicitly denounces “bureaucratism” (guanliaozhuyi) as an intrinsic ailment of bureaucracy. Yet while the revolutionary Party has blasted bureaucratism, its revolutionary regime has had to find a way to coexist with bureaucracy, which is a requisite for effective governance. An anti-bureaucratic ghost thus dwells in the machinery of China's bureaucratic state. We analyse the CCP's anti-bureaucratism through two steps. First, we perform a historical analysis of the Party's anti-bureaucratic ideology, teasing out its substance and emphasizing its roots in and departures from European Marxism and Leninism. Second, we trace both the continuity and evolution in the Party's anti-bureaucratic rhetoric, taking an interactive approach that combines close reading with computational analysis of the entire corpus of the People's Daily (1947–2020). We find striking endurance as well as subtle shifts in the substance of the CCP's anti-bureaucratic ideology. We show that bureaucratism is an umbrella term that expresses the revolutionary Party's anxiety about losing its popular legitimacy. Yet the substance of the Party's concern evolved from commandism and revisionism under Mao, to corruption and formalism during reform. The Party's ongoing critiques of bureaucratism and formalism unfold in parallel fashion with its efforts to standardize, regularize and institutionalize the state.

BORIS KOSTIANTINOVICH FORTUNATOV (1886–1940?): BIOGRAPHY PAGES

The purpose of the article. The article is devoted to the coverage of the main milestones in the life and work of a prominent zoologist, breeder, ecologist, conservationist, military and political figure, science fiction writer – Boris Konstantinovich Fortunatov (1886–1940?).Results and scientific novelty of the research. On the basis of archival and literary sources, the years of B. Fortunatov's studies and his participation in the Socialist-Revolutionary Party (SR) are considered. His role in the revolutionary events of 1905 and 1917, the First World War and the Civil War is analyzed. It is noted that the first scientific publication of the 25-year-old Fortunatov was devoted to the synthesis of bread. It was found that in 1920, after arriving at the former estate of F. Falz-Fein – Askania-Nova – there were radical changes in the life of B. Fortunatov. From that time until the last days of his life he dealt with environmental protection issues. Thanks to his enthusiasm and persistence that the Askania-Nova Reserve was saved from looting and ruin. Heading first the scientific part of the reserve, and then as the head of the zoo B. Fortunatov conducted research on the revival of the bison population and aurochs; fought robbers; studied the origin of Askanian pheasants; saved the Askanian steppes from ruin. It is noted that in different years he headed the following reserves: Askania-Nova, Crimean, Primorsky, Caucasian; worked at the Moscow Zoo, and even designed a new zoo in this city. It is stated that at the territory of the special settlement he continued his scientific activities. Heading a research station for animal husbandry, the scientist observed the fauna and flora of Saryrki; explored the desert steppes of Central Kazakhstan; organized sheep farms in order to breed fat-tailed sheep; engaged in the improvement of cattle breeds; developed a method and program for new breeds of cattle; justified the need to create the Karkalinsky State Nature Park.Key words: Fortunatov, environmental protection, Askania-Nova, reserves, animal hybridization. Мета роботи. Стаття присвячена висвітленню основних віх життя та діяльності видатного вченого-зоолога, селекціонера, еколога, захисника природи, військового і політичного діяча, письменника-фантаста – Бориса Костянтиновича Фортунатова (1886 – 1940?). Результати та наукова новизна дослідження. На основі архівних та літературних джерел розглянуто роки навчання Б. Фортунатова та його участі партії соціалістів-революціонерів. Показано його роль в революційних подіях 1905 та 1917 рр., Першій світовій та Громадянській війнах. Звернено увагу, що першу наукову публікацію 25-річний Фортунатов присвятив синтезу хліба. З’ясовано, що з 1920 р., після прибуття до колишнього маєтку Ф. Фальц-Фейна – Асканії-Нова – відбулися кардинальні зміни у житті Б. Фортунатова. З цього часу і до останніх днів його життя було пов’язане з охороною природи. Саме завдяки ентузіазму та наполегливості вченого заповідник Асканія-Нова було врятовано від пограбувань та розорення. Очолюючи спочатку наукову частину заповідника, а потім будучи завідувачем зоопарку Б. Фортунатов проводив дослідження з відродження популяції зубра та тура; боровся з браконьєрами; вивчав походження асканійських фазанів; добивався збереження асканійських степів від розорення. Зазначено, що у різні роки він очолював заповідники: Асканія-Нова, Кримський, Приморські, Кавказький; працював у Московському зоопарку, і, навіть, займався проектуванням нового зоопарку у цьому місті. Вказано, що перебуваючи на спецпоселенні він продовжив займатися науковою діяльністю. Очолюючи науково-дослідну станцію з тваринництва вчений проводив спостереження за фауною і флорою Сариркі; досліджував пустельні степи Центрального Казахстану; організував вівчарні з метою виведення курдючної вівці; займався покращенням порід великої рогатої худоби; розробив методику та програму створення нових порід великої рогатої худоби; обґрунтував необхідність створення Каркалінського державного парку природи. Ключові слова: Фортунатов, охорона природи, Асканія-Нова, заповідники, гібридизація тварин.

CRITICAL STUDY OF TANZEEM-E-ISLAMI’S REVOLUTIONARY THOUGHT AND ITS STAGES

Indeed, today is the era of western supremacy. But it is also a satisfying aspect that many movements in the Muslim world are trying to bring about Islamic revolution. Each party and movement has adopted its own methodology for the success of this task. For example some took the military approach, some adopted a democratic political electoral method and some chose the revolutionary path. Among these movements one is Tanzeem e Islami Pakistan, which has its own distinctive Islamic revolutionary concept. Tanzeem e Islami is neither the political party nor the religious sect, it is an islamic revolutionary party. They want to dominate the system of Islam first in Pakistan and then all over the world. The founder of Tanzeem e Islami Dr. Israr Ahmad, who also founded the Anjuman Khudam-ul-Quran and the Khilafat Movement, his thought seems to be influenced by Shaikh Ul Hind Maulana Mahmood Hassan, Maulana Abul Kalam Azad and Dr. Allama Iqbal. This article gives analytical study of their concept about islamic revolution and its phases.

The Black Lector forging a radical revolution

This chapter explores the place of black Cubans in Cuba and the US during the 1880s and 1890s, as articulated through the life and works of Martín Morúa Delgado (1856–1910). The first black reader or lector in cigar factories in Havana, New York, and Key West, Morúa labored incessantly for worker’s rights on both sides of the Florida Straits. Reading Morúa’s life and works from the Latino Continuum allows the recovery of the political significance of this figure for literary and historical studies, especially since he interacted directly with José Martí—the founder of the Cuban Revolutionary Party in New York City. Juxtaposing Morúa’s and Martí’s literary works and translation choices allows us to understand more fully why Morúa was at odds with Martí regarding Cuba’s future and the role that Afro Latina/os had played and would continue to play in Cuba and in the Americas. While the translation of Helen Hunt Jackson’s Ramona (1884) by Martí and the publication of Martí’s novel, Amistad funesta/Lucía Jerez, speak to US expansionism and its effect on Native American populations, they did not engage Cuba’s most pertinent question at the time—the role of black Cubans in the upcoming wars of independence and in the future Cuban Republic. Morúa, aware of this absence, uses his two novels, Sofía (1891) and La familia Unzúazu (1901), to question the political intentions and social prejudices of Americanized Cubans like José Martí, Tomás Estrada Palma, and Cirilo Villaverde.

Mikhail Prishvin’s artistic outlook in Razumnik Ivanov-Razumnik’s interpretation

It is well known that the discovery of Mikhail Prishvin as an original writer belongs to Ivanov-Razumnik with whom they were friends during a long period of time. However, the critic’s interpretation or Mikhail Prishvin’s artistic outlook is not covered well enough and objectively in the literary criticism due to serious ideological reasons. Ivanov-Razumnik who was in the most conspicuous place in sociaist-revolutionary party was struck out from the Soviet literary process in spite of his undoubted merits in the Russian culture. The politicisation of the Soviet literary criticism did not promote to adequate research of Mikhail Prishvin’s creative heritage too. It was no accident that the investigators of Mikhail Prishvin’s heritage passed over very significant page in writer’s life and heritage, which is his collaboration in the socialist-revolutionary direction journal «The Covenants» in 1912–1914 where Ivanov-Razumnik was literary editor and leading critic. The world-view positions difference did not promote for the critic to mark essential features of Mikhail Prishvin’s artistic outlook, which is confirmed by researching the materials of Ivanov-Razumnik’s articles and Mikhail Prishvin’s creative heritage and diaries.