From Family Crisis to State Crisis

Former Yan (285/337–370) was a state in Northeast China established by the Murong branch of the Xianbei, a partly nomadic people who had settled on the Chinese frontier in the 220s. The Murong gradually accommodated themselves to Chinese ways and, having defeated their rivals along the frontier by the 340s, became a major power in North China. A decade later they destroyed the states which had been strongest north of the Yellow River (Later Zhao 319–351) and their ruler assumed imperial dignity. By this time they were close to becoming the masters of North China. Schreiber explains one of the secrets of their success by arguing that the creation and the conduct of the Yan government was “a family affair”. He claimed that the Yan was a stable state, relatively free of internal turmoil and civil war. However, deteriorating family relations within the ruling elite, which did not lead to serious armed conflict but dragged on for about two decades, played a major role in the demise of their state. In the present paper I examine the causes of this deterioration and attempt to shed light on the connections between the crisis it caused and earlier attempts to forestall such a crisis.

On the formation of the Roma (Gypsy) ethnos

The author attempts to consider the history and dynamics of the formation of the Roma (Gypsy) a result of different impacts between the local population and the publiceconomic institutions of those countries, where Roma (Gypsy) lived temporarily or permanently; how ethnic contacts were established; reasons, results and post-effects of the enemy conquests of the territories, where Gypsies settled for good causing mandatory and natural changes in the language, traditions and customs, as well as religion. The issue of the ethno-genesis of the Roma/Gypsy – the process of the formation of this given ethnic community on the basis of various ethnic components – does not lose its relevance. Discussing this topic, the author revises the issue of the Indian origin of the ancestors of modern Roma in the light of new achievements in the field of genetics and the obtained irrefutable evidence that allows to put forward as one of the hypothesis the ability of Roma/Gypsy for genetic resistance, which helped them to preserve their mentality, traditions and customs, the foundations of customary law, without losing their native language. The author also touches upon the issue of defining the type of Gypsy social structure and culture, which often arises in the cases when the Gypsies are seen as exclusively nomadic people. The author puts forward his hypothesis regarding the word ‘nomadic‘ used in relation to the Gypsies.

Oral-based Bible translation: A contextualised model for the nomadic Himba people of southern Africa

Historically, the work of Bible translation has involved multiple disciplines in a commitment to translate Scripture with integrity and faithfulness to the original Greek and Hebrew texts. Translating Scripture for primary oral societies has added another dimension to the need for accuracy, beauty and clarity in Scripture translation. It has been widely accepted in Western literate society that the Bible is accessed in written print in the form of a book. For oral-preference societies, such as the nomadic Himba and San peoples of southern Africa, a printed Bible has presented a challenge. Few people read or wish to read as their primary means of communication. In the case of the San family of languages, complex phonemic systems of up to 85 contrastive clicks have presented a challenge in developing ‘readable’ orthographies. This article has highlighted the rationale for oral-based Bible translation. The research aimed to address the translation needs of oral societies – some of whom are nomadic or semi-nomadic people groups. The recent missiological positioning of certain Bible translation practitioners has led to an oral-based approach to Bible translation which validates the cultural identity of modern oral communicators. Orally crafted translations of Scripture passages have been recorded and made available to oral societies through a range of media, including MP3 players, SD cards and mobile phone applications. The effectiveness of oral-based Bible translation among the Himba people has been seen in their response. What began as a three-year pilot project to explore the potential impact of oral-based Scripture among oral societies has led to a unanimous demand for a second three-year phase, and an expressed desire for a full oral-based Bible in the Himba language. The oral-based approach as described is currently used in nearly 20 other oral Bible translation, which reflects a felt need for oral-based Scripture among oral societies in southern Africa.Contribution: Insights from the emerging practice of oral-based Bible translation in southern Africa provide valuable data for missiological approaches to communicating the gospel in the context of modern oral societies.

From Buddhist Story to Heroic Epic: A Comparative Study of the Epic of Geser and the Mulian Story

This paper compares narrative modification in the Mongolian heroic epic The Epic of Geser with that of the Buddhist Mulian story. The Mulian story, in which the protagonist saves his mother from the underworld gained widespread popularity in its time. Mulian Bianwen from the Tang dynasty, presents the scenes from the story in a very dramatic manner. The Mongolian Geser epic uses this motif but adapts the story to fit the characteristics of a heroic epic for nomadic people. Heroic epics must contain motifs that depict the image of their protagonist to present a collection of exemplary characters. To create a complete heroic epic, the story of Geser absorbed a religious story from another culture that was very popular at the time. In the present study, five scenes common to The Epic of Geser and the Mulian story are analysed to investigate how the original Buddhist story became a part of the heroic epic. This analysis considers the ways in which identical story motifs can be used for the different purposes according to the nature of the literary work.

The Morlachs of Dalmatia during the 15th and 16th century. A Venetian perspective

The article aims to present the main features of the character of the Morlachs living in the Venetian Dalmatia during the Fifteenth and Sixteenth centuries. The research approach focuses on Venetian sources, published and unpublished, therefore the portray of the Morlachs built up in this study is an external one. According to it the Morlachs appear as nomadic people who develop occasional or permanent activities in the Venetian hinterland of Dalmatia. Either they are presented by the sources as shepherds, soldiers, immigrants, merchants, criminals or in many other situations, the Morlachs became agents of coexistence in the permeable area of the Venetian-Ottoman border. This is why, one of the ideas promoted by this study is that the survival of the Morlach`s presence in Dalmatia was assured by the political instability.

Optimal integration of capacitor and PV in distribution network based on nomadic people optimizer

<span>Since the last decades, capacitor and photovoltaics (PV) are installed in distribution networks to meet the increasing in system loads. In this paper, a new application of nomadic people optimizer (NPO) algorithm is proposed to obtain the best locations and sizes of capacitor and PV alone or simultaneously in radial distribution system (RDS). Also, reactive loss sensitivity factor (QLSF) can be used for obtaining the candidate locations for installing PV and capacitor units in RDS. The efficiency of the presented technique can be applied on IEEE 69-bus and IEEE 33-bus RDS. From simulation result, installing capacitor and PV units alone in RDS decreases the total losses and increases the bus voltages. Also, simultaneous integration of PV and capacitor units give better results than integration capacitor and PV units alone in distribution network. The presented algorithm is able to explore most area of search and obtain better results than recent optimizations algorithms.</span>

Languages and ideologies at the Lower Yenisei (Siberia): Reconstructing past multilingualism

Aims and objectives: This paper reconstructs past multilingualism (1900–1930s) among the nomadic people of the Lower Yenisei in northern Siberia, with particular attention to the language ideologies behind it; it is validated by parallels from small-scale communities worldwide. Approach: An ethnographic approach is taken, which interprets sociolinguistic data in view of emic categorizations. Data and analysis: The reconstruction is based on: (a) 1926 census data; (b) ethnographic reports from the 1920s to 1960s; (c) narratives from the 1940s; (d) retrospective sociolinguistic interviews; and (e) ethnonyms of local languages. (a), (b) provide a background for the interpretation of the linguistic data from (c)–(e). Findings: The connection of local social categories/groups to languages was unstable both synchronically and diachronically. Linguistic repertoires described the authenticity of the speech communities better than the command of individual languages. The linguistic indexing of identity was relational and depended on social networks more than on ancestry/kinship. These ideologies together with constant migrations shaped the sociolinguistic profile of the area and facilitated language shifts. Originality: Besides providing a detailed sociolinguistic description for an underresearched part of the world, this paper uses a novel methodology for reconstructing multilingualism of the past. Implications: The described mechanisms of language shift within communities that are multilingual in related languages contribute to theories of language diversification and spread at least in the north, but possibly also in a broader perspective. The methodology can be applied to other cases of past multilingualism.

THE ARCHAIC ELEMENTS OF THE KYRGYZ NATIONAL GAMES

Physical culture and sport as a product of certain historical conditions for the development of society, it is the sum of the historical results of human spiritual activity. In this study, is presented one of the oldest Turkish peoples and the background of the traditional sports of the Kyrgyz with a long history. Steppe is compatible with nomadic lifestyle, national will and according to qualifications horse riding, were many sports, including shooting and wrestling. Purpose of the research: natural conditions that reveal traditional sports, the factors that determine the practical character of sports, what are the pedagogical and socio-cultural benefits of the Kyrgyz people? Method of research; it is possible to examine with a few methods, but it is preferred to use the historical method. The limitation of the study: present Kyrgyzstan and their historical geographies. As a result, Kyrgyz, which is understood to be both intellectual and moral as well as physical, has taken part in all stages of traditional sports, social structure and life. There have been some add-ons and outputs according to the changes and developments of the era. The economic life is based on animal husbandry and becoming nomadic people, they live in steep natural conditions and climatic conditions, very frequent battles in the old world, etc., it has determined the style and demand of these sports. In practice, the Kyrgyz population have overcome all these difficulties and became strong military people. <p> </p><p><strong> Article visualizations:</strong></p><p><img src="/-counters-/edu_01/0783/a.php" alt="Hit counter" /></p>