Terrestrial ecological restoration in China: identifying advances and gaps

Background China has made great progress in ecological restoration. However, there have been no analyses on ecological restoration for specific terrestrial ecosystems. This study identified the important knowledge gaps and advances related to terrestrial ecological restoration in China. Results 7973 papers published between 1978 and 2020 were investigated and about 962 articles were used in this analysis after manually screening. Since the first large national ecological restoration project in 1978, the most frequently studied ecosystem has shifted from farmland ecosystems in 1978–2000 to forest ecosystems after 2000. Forests were the most common ecosystem type investigated, while less attention was paid to wetlands and riparian systems. Meanwhile, the most common ecological issue shifted from environmental pollution in 1978–2000 to the declining resource-carrying capacity of ecosystems after 2000. Studies of ecoregions on the Loess Plateau catchment accounted for more than 40% of papers reviewed in this study, with predominant emphasis on soil and water conservation functionality. Besides, revegetation and afforestation characterized most ecological restoration projects in China, but the natural restoration was relatively less adopted. Additionally, the important tool of reference ecosystem was only used in four studies. Conclusions Ecological restoration has made significant progress in China. We investigated how the ecological restoration can be implemented more effectively. More projects should be implemented for restorative work in wetlands and riparian systems in future. The tradeoff between restorative activities, water resources, and carbon sink needs further research efforts. More emphasis on biodiversity conservation is warranted. Newly developed theory (e.g., stepwise ecological restoration) and the recently issued Chinese National Guidelines for Ecological Restoration Projects should be more effectively implemented in future restorative works. This study provides essential information for future restorative work in China. It also provides insights into the development of policy relevant to restoration and adaptive management during the U.N. restoration decade.

GOVERNANCE PROPOSAL FOR AN INNOVATION CENTER INSERTED IN A REFERRED ECOSYSTEM

As an important economic and social transformation strategy that has been adopted throughout the world, the formation of local innovation ecosystems constitutes a network of cooperation in favor of local development through the innovation economy formed by different types of actors. Among these actors, innovation habitats stand out, in particular, innovation centers that bring together in a single location several mechanisms, programs and other habitats in one place, and can thus become an epicenter of innovation ecosystems. However, depending on the degree of maturity of the ecosystem, the management and integration of an innovation center may have certain difficulties in its execution, therefore, this article presents a governance model, called hive, based on the case of the innovation center Jaraguá in Maceió/AL, recently launched within an ecosystem still under construction. At the end, a unique new look at the governance of an innovation center in a reference ecosystem is launched, demonstrating its main obstacles, strengths and how the flow of knowledge is developed in it.

Implications of Ethnoecological and Phytoecological Studies for the Sustainable Management of the Mozogo-Gokoro National Park (Cameroon)

Sustainable management planning of protected areas depends on data from their biophysical and human environment. Based on such a premise, and using established international and national standards, this chapter proposes to outline a range of measures that can be considered in this process, drawing on the results of ecological studies carried out in the Mozogo-Gokoro National Park, located in the Sudano-Sahelian dry zone in the Far North of Cameroon. Initially, determining attributes for conservation were identified, notably those relating to the richness of the flora and the structure of the vegetation, which are close to a reference ecosystem. Subsequently, recommendations for sustainable management were formulated and analyzed in turn, taking into account especially the destructive anthropization identified as a major threat to the stability of the park. These management orientations could also be applied to safeguard other ecosystems in the Sudano-Sahelian zone.

Ecosystem restoration in Mexico: insights on the project planning phase

Background: A deep discussion of the phases of planning by all stakeholders will help to identify the challenges faced by countries that are embarking on large-scale restoration actions to comply with international agreements. Question: Was the planning phase of restoration projects done according to international guidance? We evaluated six of the eight aspects of the international guidance for the planning phase of restoration projects carried out in Mexico between 1979 and 2016. Methods: The information about the restoration projects was compiled using a digital survey composed of 137 questions. Results: Seventy-five projects with a total area of 1,556,840 hectares were analyzed, mainly in temperate, humid, and deciduous forest. More projects measured the baseline with biotic than with abiotic variables, and social variables were seldom evaluated. Most projects aimed to recover biodiversity or ecosystem services, and they identified a reference ecosystem. Planned budgets included mainly field work. Conclusions: To promote the integration of ecological, social, and economic priorities, landscape restoration is suggested, since it is done at a scale which maximizes the benefits for nature and people. The inclusion of only field work in the budgets may decrease the total cost, but it may jeopardize project success due to poor planning. Careful and detailed planning of a national strategy constructed by all stakeholders that includes restoration of original ecosystems, agroforestry systems (which facilitate social participation and increase land productivity) and patches under natural succession, and investing in highly trained human resources will allow successful compliance with international restoration commitments.

Influences of environmental variables on the natural regeneration in a forest under restoration after bauxite mining and a reference ecosystem in Southeastern Brazil

The shrub-tree floristic compositions of the natural regeneration stratum of a bauxite mine in the process of restoration and in a reference ecosystem (remnant of a preserved secondary Seasonal Semi-Deciduous Forest) were analysed to evaluate forest restoration conditions five years after planting. The influences of canopy openness, accumulated leaf litter and soil attributes in the regeneration stratum were also investigated in both forests. The floristic composition of the regeneration stratum in the restoration forest and in the reference ecosystem are distinct, due to the difference in the environmental variables. Results showed that the reference ecosystem favours the presence of species that tolerate environments with greater shading and higher aluminium and organic matter content in the soil, while the forest under restoration favours the presence of species adapted to fertile soils and those that tolerate greater luminosity. The restoration actions implanted are making possible the return of native species in bauxite mined area.

Artificial perches increase seedling diversity and abundance in a degraded area in the Brazilian Midwest region

In the Midwest region of Brazil, forest fragments from the Atlantic Forest biome are disconnected from the landscape and with low resilience. Searching for potential restoration techniques, this study aimed to evaluate the interactions of artificial perches with some nucleation techniques, in order to confirm the hypothesis that the combination of these techniques increases the diversity of seeds and regenerants in the area. The experimental design was randomized in blocks, with five treatments and three replications. The restoration treatments included (1) control perches only; (2) perches with propagule collectors; (3) perches with brushwood transposition; (4) perches with food supply; and (5) perches with brushwood transposition and food supply. The experiment was conducted in a degraded area, which was previously colonized by pasture, in the surroundings of a forest remnant (reference ecosystem). After 365 days, the regenerants were identified (number of species and individuals). In the diversity of regenerants there was a significant increase with the interaction of more than one nucleation technique, highlighting the efficiency of the combination of artificial perches with collectors (T2) and brushwood transposition with food supply (T5). Based on the results it can be stated that the use of artificial perches combined with other nucleation techniques favors the recruitment of seedlings of zoochoric species and increases the seed bank through bird foraging. We believe that this technique is economically viable and has the potential for being used in restoration projects.

Ecosystem Model Proposal in the Tourism Sector to Enhance Sustainable Competitiveness

Service companies in developed countries represent 70–80% of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP). In Spain, within the service sector, tourism is the main contributor and is growing annually. This is obviously an opportunity for the country due to its benefits and economic effects but at the same time a well-structured, sustainable and competitive model for its continued development is needed in order to adopt best practices and reference innovative models from other sectors. A qualitative approach using Case Study, Grounded Theory and Delphi Method has been conducted to study the tourism sector in the city of Gandia, Valencia (Spain). Results show that a tourist destination with its different components and stakeholders involved in its value chain can be interpreted as an ecosystem and so reference ecosystem models could be adopted to boost the development of a region. Considering the results obtained, this study can contribute to the development of a tourist destination in a sustainable and innovative way.

Composition and Diversity of Areas Under Restoration Process From the Brazilian Atlantic Forest

The evaluation of the forest restoration scenario is of great importance, with floristic composition and diversity being among the most used ecological variables as indicators. This research aimed to identify the current situation, in terms of species composition and diversity, of two riparian forests under restoration based on a reference ecosystem, the Brazilian Atlantic Forest. Twenty permanent plots (250 m²) were located in areas under restoration process (AR1 and AR2) and in a forest fragment of the region which served as a reference ecosystem (ER). We sampled, identified and classified all tree individuals with CBH ≥ 15.0 cm in each plot. Aiming to understand species richness and diversity, besides the traditional indexes (Shannon and Simpson), we also estimated the effective numbers of Hill’s diversity (qD = 0, 1 and 2) considering rarefaction (P ≤ 0.05); and to detect floristic similarities among the study areas we performed a Principal Coordinate Analysis (PCoA). We found dissimilarity among ARs and ER, and the presence of exotic species, indicating that, as recommended, such reference should have been taken into account during the planning of the restoration action. Considering the effective numbers of species (qD) we found differences between the areas, species richness and diversity was higher in ER > AR2 > AR1. We also show that among the restoration areas, with the same age and submitted to the same conditions, AR2 has features that allow us to conclude that this area has a bigger chance of success in the restoration process. However, aiming environmental sustainability, we suggest that some corrective actions should be taken in order to favour the reestablishment of ecological processes in these areas.