Prevalence, predictors and types of unpleasant and adverse effects of meditation in regular meditators: international cross-sectional study

BackgroundMeditation is commonly implemented in psychological therapies since the ‘third wave’ of cognitive–behavioural therapy has increased the focus on mindfulness-based interventions. Although extensive research literature demonstrates its benefits, little is known about potential adverse effects.AimsThe aim of this study is to report the prevalence, type and severity of particularly unpleasant meditation-related experiences in the largest cross-sectional study on this topic to date, with 1370 regular meditators.MethodThe participants were asked whether they ever encountered particularly unpleasant experiences as a result of their meditation experience. For the first time, the type and severity of those experiences were assessed and the association with several predictors, such as pre-existing mental disorders, were explored via logistic and linear regression.ResultsSimilar to previous studies, 22% of participants (95% CI 20–24) reported having encountered unpleasant meditation-related experiences, and 13% of participants (95% CI 3–5) reported experiences that were categorised as adverse. Those were mostly of affective, somatic and cognitive nature. Unpleasant meditation-related experiences were more likely to occur in participants with pre-existing mental illnesses (P = 0.000, 95% CI 1.25–2.12).ConclusionsThis study demonstrates that unpleasant meditation-related experiences are prevalent among meditators and, to a relevant extent, severe enough to warrant further scientific inquiry. Longitudinal studies are needed to examine whether the unpleasant meditation-related experiences are merely negative and thus should be avoided, or are an inherent part of the contemplative path.

Cortical and autonomic responses during staged Taoist meditation: Two distinct meditation strategies

Meditation is a consciousness state associated with specific physiological and neural correlates. Numerous investigations of these correlates reported controversial results which prevented a consistent depiction of the underlying neurophysiological processes. Here we investigated the dynamics of multiple neurophysiological indicators during a staged meditation session. We measured the physiological changes at rest and during the guided Taoist meditation in experienced meditators and naive subjects. We recorded EEG, respiration, galvanic skin response, and photoplethysmography. All subjects followed the same instructions split into 16 stages. In the experienced meditators group we identified two subgroups with different physiological markers dynamics. One subgroup showed several signs of general relaxation evident from the changes in heart rate variability, respiratory rate, and EEG rhythmic activity. The other subgroup exhibited mind concentration patterns primarily noticeable in the EEG recordings while no autonomic responses occurred. The duration and type of previous meditation experience or any baseline indicators we measured did not explain the segregation of the meditators into these two groups. These results suggest that two distinct meditation strategies could be used by experienced meditators, which partly explains the inconsistent results reported in the earlier studies evaluating meditation effects. Our findings are also relevant to the development of the high-end biofeedback systems.

Being Mindfully Present in the Moment: Influences on Psychological Functioning

<p>Mindfulness is defined as a fundamental way of being, a way of relating to all of one‟s experiences whether positive, negative, or neutral, with an attentive, curious, and nonevaluative mindset (Kabat-Zinn, 2003; Williams, Teasdale, Segal, & Kabat-Zinn, 2007). The basic premise underlying mindfulness is that accepting moment-to-moment experiences as they arise, with an open-minded disposition, helps protect against psychological symptoms such as anxiety, depression, stress, and adverse ruminative thoughts (Baer, 2003; Hofmann, Sawyer, Witt, & Oh, 2010). In addition, mindfulness is also thought to enhance psychological health and wellbeing, such as increases in emotional intelligence, body image, and positive mental health (Bohlmeijer, ten Klooster, Fledderus, Veehof, & Baer, 2011; Stewart, 2004). Extant mindfulness literature has largely focused on the outcomes that are associated with mindfulness-based interventions designed to enhance an individual‟s state of mindfulness, though, less is known about naturally occurring dispositional mindfulness. According to some researchers, mindfulness manifesting as a trait (or individual difference characteristic) is an inherent human capacity that varies between individuals (Brown & Ryan, 2003; Kabat-Zinn, 1990). To examine the complexities of trait mindfulness, it is necessary to have a comprehensive understanding of the operationalisation of the construct. To date, however, methods for assessing mindfulness have received little attention in psychological research (Baer, Smith, Hopkins, Krietemeyer, & Toney, 2006). Across a series of three empirical studies (Chapters 2 through 4), this thesis aimed to explore the naturally occurring construct of trait mindfulness using two measures designed to capture this multifaceted phenomenon – the Five-Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ; Baer et al., 2006) and the Trait Toronto Mindfulness Scale (Trait TMS; Davis, Lau, & Cairns, 2009). Study 1 (Chapter 2) began with a psychometric analysis of the FFMQ, and then explored how the tendency to be mindful related to both positive and negative psychological outcomes. Contrary to expectations, a confirmatory factor analysis of the FFMQ in this sample yielded a 2-factor model of mindfulness (Nonjudging Awareness and Describing) as opposed to the five factors proposed by Baer et al. (2006). Further analyses revealed that the factor of Nonjudging Awareness appeared to be the most potent aspect of mindfulness that positively predicted happiness, life satisfaction, and adaptive coping (positive psychological outcomes) and negatively predicted depression, anxiety, and maladaptive coping (negative psychological outcomes). In Study 2 (Chapter 3), both the FFMQ and the Trait TMS were compared and tested for factor structure across three points in time on a community sample of individuals (N = 319). Both measurement invariance and convergent validity were explored, with results supporting expectations. First, results yielded a 5-factor structure of the FFMQ and a 2-factor structure of the Trait TMS. Second, factorial invariance on both mindfulness measures was evidenced across three time points. Third, results indicated moderate construct overlap between these two trait measures of mindfulness, i.e., they tapped a similar construct, as was expected. Study 3 (Chapter 4) sought to extend on the previous two studies‟ findings by 1) exploring whether trait mindfulness was positively predictive of positive psychological outcomes and negatively predictive of negative outcomes across time, and 2) comparing the psychological functioning of two groups – individuals with and without meditation experience – across time. Using the same sample from Study 2, trait mindfulness, as measured by the FFMQ and Trait TMS, supported hypotheses, though some predicted findings appeared to be manifested between the second and third time points only. Moreover, results indicated that meditation experience may protect against maladaptive psychological outcomes such as depression and anxiety, while increasing feelings of subjective happiness and life satisfaction (supporting traditional meditation ideology and current empirical literature). In combination, the present research supports and contributes novel perspectives to the existing body of mindfulness literature by suggesting that establishing ways to amplify the naturally occurring trait of mindfulness, although challenging, will prove fertile within Western clinical psychology, which looks to influence an individual‟s psychological wellbeing. Chapter 5 concludes this thesis with a discussion of the implications of the combined series of studies. Strengths and limitations of this research were considered, and future directions were proposed.</p>

Being Mindfully Present in the Moment: Influences on Psychological Functioning

<p>Mindfulness is defined as a fundamental way of being, a way of relating to all of one‟s experiences whether positive, negative, or neutral, with an attentive, curious, and nonevaluative mindset (Kabat-Zinn, 2003; Williams, Teasdale, Segal, & Kabat-Zinn, 2007). The basic premise underlying mindfulness is that accepting moment-to-moment experiences as they arise, with an open-minded disposition, helps protect against psychological symptoms such as anxiety, depression, stress, and adverse ruminative thoughts (Baer, 2003; Hofmann, Sawyer, Witt, & Oh, 2010). In addition, mindfulness is also thought to enhance psychological health and wellbeing, such as increases in emotional intelligence, body image, and positive mental health (Bohlmeijer, ten Klooster, Fledderus, Veehof, & Baer, 2011; Stewart, 2004). Extant mindfulness literature has largely focused on the outcomes that are associated with mindfulness-based interventions designed to enhance an individual‟s state of mindfulness, though, less is known about naturally occurring dispositional mindfulness. According to some researchers, mindfulness manifesting as a trait (or individual difference characteristic) is an inherent human capacity that varies between individuals (Brown & Ryan, 2003; Kabat-Zinn, 1990). To examine the complexities of trait mindfulness, it is necessary to have a comprehensive understanding of the operationalisation of the construct. To date, however, methods for assessing mindfulness have received little attention in psychological research (Baer, Smith, Hopkins, Krietemeyer, & Toney, 2006). Across a series of three empirical studies (Chapters 2 through 4), this thesis aimed to explore the naturally occurring construct of trait mindfulness using two measures designed to capture this multifaceted phenomenon – the Five-Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ; Baer et al., 2006) and the Trait Toronto Mindfulness Scale (Trait TMS; Davis, Lau, & Cairns, 2009). Study 1 (Chapter 2) began with a psychometric analysis of the FFMQ, and then explored how the tendency to be mindful related to both positive and negative psychological outcomes. Contrary to expectations, a confirmatory factor analysis of the FFMQ in this sample yielded a 2-factor model of mindfulness (Nonjudging Awareness and Describing) as opposed to the five factors proposed by Baer et al. (2006). Further analyses revealed that the factor of Nonjudging Awareness appeared to be the most potent aspect of mindfulness that positively predicted happiness, life satisfaction, and adaptive coping (positive psychological outcomes) and negatively predicted depression, anxiety, and maladaptive coping (negative psychological outcomes). In Study 2 (Chapter 3), both the FFMQ and the Trait TMS were compared and tested for factor structure across three points in time on a community sample of individuals (N = 319). Both measurement invariance and convergent validity were explored, with results supporting expectations. First, results yielded a 5-factor structure of the FFMQ and a 2-factor structure of the Trait TMS. Second, factorial invariance on both mindfulness measures was evidenced across three time points. Third, results indicated moderate construct overlap between these two trait measures of mindfulness, i.e., they tapped a similar construct, as was expected. Study 3 (Chapter 4) sought to extend on the previous two studies‟ findings by 1) exploring whether trait mindfulness was positively predictive of positive psychological outcomes and negatively predictive of negative outcomes across time, and 2) comparing the psychological functioning of two groups – individuals with and without meditation experience – across time. Using the same sample from Study 2, trait mindfulness, as measured by the FFMQ and Trait TMS, supported hypotheses, though some predicted findings appeared to be manifested between the second and third time points only. Moreover, results indicated that meditation experience may protect against maladaptive psychological outcomes such as depression and anxiety, while increasing feelings of subjective happiness and life satisfaction (supporting traditional meditation ideology and current empirical literature). In combination, the present research supports and contributes novel perspectives to the existing body of mindfulness literature by suggesting that establishing ways to amplify the naturally occurring trait of mindfulness, although challenging, will prove fertile within Western clinical psychology, which looks to influence an individual‟s psychological wellbeing. Chapter 5 concludes this thesis with a discussion of the implications of the combined series of studies. Strengths and limitations of this research were considered, and future directions were proposed.</p>

Cortical and autonomic responses during staged Taoist meditation: two distinct meditation strategies.

Meditation is a consciousness state associated with specific physiological and neural correlates. Numerous investigations of these correlates reported controversial results which prevented a consistent depiction of the underlying neurophysiological processes. Here we investigated the dynamics of multiple neurophysiological indicators during a staged meditation session. We measured the physiological changes at rest and during the guided Taoist meditation in experienced meditators and naive subjects. We recorded EEG, respiration, galvanic skin response, and photoplethysmography. All subjects followed the same instructions split into 16 stages. In the experienced meditators group we identified two subgroups with different physiological markers dynamics. One subgroup showed several signs of general relaxation evident from the changes in heart rate variability, respiratory rate, and EEG rhythmic activity. The other subgroup exhibited mind concentration patterns primarily noticeable in the EEG recordings while no autonomic responses occurred. The duration and type of previous meditation experience or any baseline indicators we measured did not explain the segregation of the meditators into these two groups. These results suggest that two distinct meditation strategies could be used by experienced meditators, which partly explains the inconsistent results reported in the earlier studies evaluating meditation effects. Our findings are also relevant to the development of the high-end biofeedback systems.

Validation of the Spanish Version of the Lucidity and Consciousness in Dreams Scale

Lucid dreaming, a specific phenomenon of dream consciousness, refers to the experience being aware that one is dreaming. The primary aim of this research was to validate a Spanish version of the Lucidity and Consciousness in Dreams scale (LuCiD). A secondary aim was to explore whether meditation experience and mindfulness trait were related to LuCiD scores. Data from 367 Spanish men (34.6%) and women (65.4%) who completed LuCiD, the Five Facets of Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ), and the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS) were examined. From the total sample, 40.3% indicated some experience with formal meditation (meditators), while 59.7% did not have any meditation experience (non-meditators). A random subsample of 101 participants, who completed LuCiD for a second time after a period of 10–15days, was used for test–retest reliability analysis. The LuCiD scale comprises 28 items distributed across eight factors: insight, control, thought, realism, memory, dissociation, negative emotion, and positive emotion. Factor structure, reliability by both internal consistency and test–retest reliability, and construct and concurrent validity were tested. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) confirmed the original eight-factor model, showing goodness of fit in contrast to a single-factor model. Item 15 was deleted from the Dissociation factor as it performed poorly (i.e., skewness and kurtosis, non-normal distribution of responses, and corrected item–total correlation under 0.40). The scale showed adequate values of internal consistency (between α=0.65 for Memory and α=0.83 for Positive Emotion) and test–retest reliability by significant Pearson correlations (p&lt;0.001) for each factor. The scores of meditators were higher for the LuCiD scale Insight and Dissociation factors, in contrast to those of non-meditators. The Observing facet of mindfulness was positively associated with all LuCiD factors, except Realism and Positive Emotion, and the Acting with Awareness facet showed a negative correlation with the LuCiD factor Realism. Finally, positive and negative affects was associated with the LuCiD factors Positive Emotion and Negative Emotion. This study provides a valid and reliable measure for exploring lucidity and consciousness in dreams for a Spanish population, Moreover, the results suggest a relationship with meditation experience, mindfulness trait, and positive and negative affect.

Transcending Locality

This chapter explores the rising popularity of Buddhist meditation in Israel and the self-identity that bodily based mindfulness offers its practitioners. Based on extended ethnographic fieldwork among Israeli practitioners of vipassana meditation, this chapter illustrates how in periods characterized by doubt and uncertainty, Israelis find in meditation an embodied anchor for selfhood which substitutes dependency on the social world. Through meditation practice, Israelis recede into the body, temporarily liberating the self from local social embeddedness. Yet, at the same time, this same withdrawal to the body produces universal, humanistic-based identifications. The chapter detects four dimensions in the attempt to transcend local social context: an ideological rejection of particularism, the meditation center as a space without a place, the distancing of social roles and identities in vipassana practice, and a connection to humanity at large through loving-kindness. In meditation experience, considered by practitioners as the most personal, “private” withdrawal into the self, Israeli vipassana practitioners find a universal anchor that transcends social locality.

The EEG spectral fingerprints of meditation and mind wandering differ between experienced meditators and novices

Previous literature suggests that meditation training is associated with changes in participants' experience during meditation practice. In this study, we assess whether putative differences in the experience of meditation between meditators and non-meditators are reflected in EEG spectral modulations. For this purpose, we recorded electroencephalography (EEG) during rest and two breath focus meditations (with and without experience sampling) in a group of 29 adult participants with more than 3 years of meditation experience and a control group of 29 participants without any meditation experience. Experience sampling in one of the meditation conditions allowed us to disentangle periods of breath focus from mind wandering (i.e. moments of distraction driven by task-irrelevant thoughts) during meditation practice. Overall, meditators reported a greater level of focus and reduced mind wandering during meditation practice than controls. In line with these reports, EEG spectral modulations associated to meditation and mind wandering also differed significantly between meditators and controls. While meditators (but not controls) showed a significant decrease in individual alpha frequency and amplitude and a steeper 1/f slope during meditation relative to rest, controls (but not meditators) showed a relative increase in individual alpha amplitude during mind wandering relative to breath focus periods. Together, our results show that the experience of meditation changes with training and that this is reflected in oscillatory and non-oscillatory components of brain activity.

Relationships Between Mindfulness Facets and Mental and Physical Health in Meditating and Nonmeditating University Students

Background: Little is known about the relations of the mindfulness facets to mental and physical health among meditators and nonmeditators. Aim: The main purpose of the present study was to investigate the relationship between the mindfulness facets and mental as well as physical health of university students with and without meditation experience using attentional control, body awareness, nonattachment, and emotion regulation as mediators. Method: Data were collected from a sample of 508 university students (meditators: n = 195, nonmeditators n = 313). Path analysis models were used to examine the associations between the mindfulness facets, all candidate mediators and the outcome variables mental and physical health complaints. Additionally, a bootstrapping procedure was used to test the significance of the indirect effects. Results: Results showed that the associations between the mindfulness facets, the proposed mediators, and mental and physical health complaints were similar between students with and without meditation experience. Nonattachment and body awareness were the most important mediators. Limitations: Only self-report questionnaires were used in the study, and the majority of the sample was women and enrolled in health and social science studies. Conclusion: The results indicated that the investigation of mindfulness at the facet level is worthwhile. The study helps to clarify the associations between the mindfulness facets and mental as well as physical health among students with and without meditation experience. Further, mindfulness mediators should be examined in intervention studies.

Rajyoga Meditation Experience Induces Enhanced Positive Thoughts and Alters Gray Matter Volume of Brain Regions: A Cross-sectional Study

Objectives Many studies on various meditation types have reported regional gray matter volume changes using voxel-based morphometric analysis of structural MRI, but there are no studies done on structural MRI of Rajyoga meditators. The objective of the present study is to analyze and compare gray matter volume changes of brain regions in meditators and non-meditators and further study the effects of meditation experience on alterations in various brain regions. These regions were then correlated and compared to positive thought scores of participants. Methods Forty participants in each group (closely matched for age, gender, and handedness) were selected after obtaining their informed consent, and voxel-based morphometric analysis was carried out using their structural MRI scans. Results On voxel-wise comparison of the brain scans, meditators were observed to have significantly higher global gray matter volume and significant regional gray matter volume increases in the right superior frontal gyrus, left inferior orbitofrontal cortex, left inferior parietal gyrus, left posterior cerebellum, left middle temporal gyrus, bilateral precuneus, and cuneus. Additionally, long-term meditators particularly had significantly higher positive thinking scores compared to non-meditators. On multiple regression analysis, gray matter volume of the left superior parietal gyrus and left inferior parietal gyrus had a positive association, whereas the left posterior cerebellum had a negative association with hours of meditation experience. With the positive thoughts score, a significant relationship was found in the right superior temporal gyrus in meditators. Conclusions These findings indicate that Rajyoga meditation experience/practice enhances gray matter volume of specific brain regions and positive thoughts.