The Physiology of Social Pain

Social pain and physical pain have historically been conceptualized as distinct phenomena. Recent research, however, has noted several similarities between the two. The present chapter establishes the physiological basis of social pain. Further, the chapter explores the relational precedents and correlates of social pain. By synthesizing research that explores definitional elements of social pain, the reviewed literature explores the social basis of hurt. The chapter also reviews the extant research that posits similarities in the neural processing of social and physical pain. These similarities are further explained by examining findings that have emphasized parallels between cognitive, behavioral, and physiological responses to both social and physical pain. Shortcomings in the current research are reviewed, and several future directions are offered for researchers interested in the physiology of social pain.

Conceptualizing and Measuring Affective and Cognitive Empathy

Individual differences in the ability to recognize emotion displays relate strongly to emotional intelligence, and emotional and social competence. However, there is a difference between the ability to judge the emotions of another person (i.e., emotional empathy) and the ability to take the perspective of another person, including making accurate appraisals, attributions, and inferences about the mental states of others (i.e., cognitive empathy). In this chapter, we review the concept of emotional empathy and the current state of the field, including emerging and converging evidence from neuroscience research that emotional and cognitive empathy involve doubly dissociable brain systems. We also discuss emerging literature on the physiological mechanisms underlying empathy in the peripheral and central nervous systems. We then distinguish spontaneous and symbolic communication processes to show how cognitive empathy emerges from emotional empathy during development. Development starts with the prelinguistic mutual contingent responsiveness of infant and caregiver yielding “raw” primary intersubjectivity, then secondary and tertiary intersubjectivity advances with increasing social experience, and finally cognitive empathic abilities expand in perspective taking and Theory of Mind (ToM) skills. We then present an Affect-Reason-Involvement (ARI) model to guide the conceptualization and measurement of emotional and cognitive empathy. We consider emotion correlation scores as a flexible and valid approach to empathy measurement, with implications for understanding the role of discrete emotions in decision making. Finally, we apply this reasoning to recent studies of the role of emotion and empathy in bullying.

Evoking Issues of Race and Ethnicity in Research on Physiology and Interpersonal Communication

Investigating the role of physiology in communication research is a burgeoning area of study that has gained considerable attention by relational scholars in the past decade. Unfortunately, very few published studies on this topic have evoked important questions about the role of race and ethnicity. Exploring issues of ethnicity and race provides a more holistic and inclusive view of interpersonal communication across diverse groups and communities. This chapter addresses the gap in literature by considering the ways in which race and ethnicity matter in work on physiology and interpersonal interactions. More specifically, this chapter will first discuss the conceptual underpinnings of race, ethnicity, and other relevant concepts and then review extant research within and beyond the field of communication on race, ethnicity, interpersonal interactions, and physiology. These discussions set the foundation for this chapter to propose new lines of research that pointedly connect these four concepts and advance key principles that scholars should consider in future work.

The Hormonal Underpinnings of Sexual Communication

Sexual communication is a pivotal part of interpersonal relationships; recent research reveals associations between sexual communication and various relational outcomes. Within the broad domain of sexual communication, current scholarship specifically addresses the role of postsex communication in relationships and its links to physiological and genetic markers. Given these advancements, the present chapter offers an overview of research linking physiology, hormones, and genes to communication after sexual activity. The chapter first presents reviews of two key hormones in sexual communication research: testosterone (T) and oxytocin (O). The oxytocin receptor gene and its link to social behavior broadly, and sexual behavior specifically, is also explored. The chapter then offers a review of several theories relevant to understanding the hormonal underpinnings of sexual communication, as well as future directions for research exploring sexual communication and physiology.

Resilience Through Stress

Resilience is the capacity of individuals or systems to successfully navigate and adapt to changes and challenges in their environment that can induce stress. Repeated or ongoing exposure to stress is typically associated with adverse health and relational outcomes. However, some relationships withstand the weight of chronic stress and even grow from it. The theory of resilience and relational load (TRRL) was created to explain why some relational systems (e.g., couples, families) are resilient to or thrive under repeated stress while others crumble in the face of it. This chapter elucidates the tenets of the theory and overviews research where they were tested. Relational maintenance and communal orientation (related to a sense of unity) are proposed as central to the process of building relational and personal resilience to stress by fostering more security-based appraisals. Throughout, the authors emphasize the significance of physiology to research on risk and resilience to stress, the physiological mechanisms (e.g., activation of the HPA, oxytocin activity) accounting for the predictions of the theory, and the role of physiological measures in testing the theory.

Enacting the Demand/Withdrawal Pattern and Physical Well-Being

The frequency and focus of conflict varies during relational development, however, disagreements occur during every phase. One maladaptive communication pattern that has received considerable attention is the demand/withdrawal sequence – a pattern that generally involves one individual demanding that his or her partner change, and that partner then responding by withdrawing from the interaction. This chapter reviews research that examines how the demand/withdrawal sequence is related to measures of emotional provocation, physiological arousal, and physical health. We first explicate the features of the pattern and theories that have guided previous research. Then we examine research that investigated how the pattern is related to emotional, physiological, and health-related outcomes. We conclude with a discussion of future research directions.

Understanding Physiological Associations With Emotional Competence

The communication discipline has long believed that emotions are a fundamental part of the human experience, becoming one of the building blocks upon which interpersonal communication events can occur. This chapter examines the various ways that emotional competence is linked to biopsychosocial health. It focuses on alexithymia, a condition where individuals are less able to understand and communicate emotions. The chapter then describes the relationships between alexithymia and a host of physiological outcome measures, including elements of the sympathetic nervous system, the endocrine system, and the immune system. It also details several neurological structures that are related to alexithymia, including socioaffective processing, interoceptive arousal, and emotion-guided decision making. Finally, the chapter concludes with some general insights about the state of research in this domain and possible future directions.

Future Directions for Physiological Communication Research

This handbook offered a review of cutting-edge research in the field of interpersonal communication and posed future directions to extend the literature focused on the bidirectional associations between communication and the human body. This chapter serves to summarize the handbook chapters by first reviewing biomarkers favored in communication scholarship, specifically cortisol, skin conductivity, heart rate, blood pressure, and neural activity. Next, several emerging areas of investigation are noted, namely the consideration of testosterone, oxytocin, dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate, immune response indicators, and plasma glucose levels. The conclusion specifies directions for future research and advocates for interdisciplinary collaborations with physiologists, neuroendocrinologists, neurologists, and other researchers studying life sciences.

The Psychobiology of Listening

Listening is frequently considered to be synonymous with hearing. While the process of hearing is complex in itself, the process of listening extends beyond human physiology and neurobiology and includes sensory processes of vision. Indeed, as the McGurk effect suggests, the visual component of listening can dominate human perception. Listening also incorporates brain activity through cognitive functions of attention, comprehension, inference making, and memory. Other sensory processes, such as touch, taste, and smell, further impact the physiology and neurobiology of listening. This chapter utilizes research across the academic landscape to provide a theoretical framework for the physiological and perceptual components of listening that integrates perspectives of both the listener and the person (i.e., speaker) who is listened to.

The Physiology of Affectionate Communication

Affectionate communication consists of the verbal and nonverbal means through which people convey messages of love, fondness, appreciation, and commitment to others in close relationships. Like all interpersonal behaviors, affectionate communication has physiological antecedents, correlates, and consequences, many of which have implications for physical and mental wellness. This chapter begins by situating affectionate behavior in a bioevolutionary frame, noting its adaptive nature with respect to survival, procreation, and well-being. The chapter then reviews research on the genetic and neurological distinctions between highly affectionate and less affectionate individuals; the stress management and stress recovery benefits of affection exchange; the associations between affection, immunocompetence, and experiences of relaxation and calm; and the physical and psychological detriments associated with affection deprivation.