Functionally Graded Flexural Rigidity Improves Flight Performance in Flapping Wing Insects
AbstractInsect wings are highly heterogeneous structures, with flexural rigidity varying one to two orders of magnitude over the wing surface. This heterogeneity influences the deformation the flapping wing experiences under aerodynamic and inertial loads. However, it is not well understood how this flexural rigidity gradient affects wing performance. Here, we develop a reduced-order model of the flapping wing using the assumed mode method and unsteady vortex lattice method to model the structural and fluid dynamics, respectively. We conduct parameter studies to explore how variable flexural rigidity affects mean lift production, power consumption and the forces required to flap the wing. We find that there is an optimal flexural rigidity distribution that maximizes lift production; this distribution generally corresponds to a 3:1 ratio between the wing’s flapping and natural frequencies, though the precise ratio is sensitive to flapping kinematics. For hovering flapping kinematics, the optimized flexible wing produces 20% more lift and requires 15% less power compared to a rigid wing but needs 20% higher forces to flap. Even when flapping kinematics deviate from those observed during hover, the flexible wing outperforms the rigid wing in terms of aerodynamic force generation and power across a wide range of flexural rigidity gradients. Peak force requirements and power consumption are inversely proportional with respect to flexural rigidity gradient, which presents a trade-off between insect muscle size and energy storage requirements. The model developed in this work can be used to efficiently investigate other spatially variant morphological or material wing features moving forward.