Comparative study of the flexural properties of ABS, PLA and a PLA–wood composite manufactured through fused filament fabrication

Purpose The aim of this paper is to analyze the mechanical properties of acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS) parts manufactured through fused filament fabrication and compare these results to analogous ones obtained on polylactic acid (PLA) and PLA–wood specimens to contribute for a wider understanding of the different materials used for additive manufacturing. Design/methodology/approach With that aim, an experimental based on an L27 Taguchi array was used to combine the specific parameters taken into account in the study, namely, layer height, nozzle diameter, infill density, orientation and printing velocity. All samples were subjected to a four-point bending test performed according to the ASTM D6272 standard. Findings Young’s modulus, elastic limit, maximum stress and maximum deformation of every sample were computed and subjected to an analysis of variance. Results prove that layer height and nozzle diameter are the most significant factors that affect the mechanical resistance in pieces generated through additive manufacturing and subjected to bending loads, regardless of the material. Practical implications The best results were obtained by combining a layer height of 0.1 mm and a nozzle diameter of 0.6 mm. The comparison of materials evidenced that PLA and its composite version reinforced with wood particles present more rigidity than ABS, whereas the latter can experience further deflection before break. Originality/value This study is of interest for manufacturers that want to decide which is the best material to be applied for their application, as it derives in a practical technical recommendation of the best parameters that should be selected to treat the material during the fused filament fabrication process.

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A design for additive manufacturing case study: fingerprint stool on a BigRep ONE

Rapid Prototyping Journal ◽

10.1108/rpj-10-2018-0278 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 25 (6) ◽

pp. 1069-1079 ◽

Cited By ~ 5

Author(s):

James I. Novak ◽

Jonathon O’Neill

Keyword(s):

Additive Manufacturing ◽

Large Scale ◽

Future Research ◽

Design For Additive Manufacturing ◽

Fused Filament Fabrication ◽

Content Type ◽

Layer Height ◽

Design Engineers ◽

Final Design

Purpose This paper aims to present new qualitative and quantitative data about the recently released “BigRep ONE” 3 D printer led by the design of a one-off customized stool. Design/methodology/approach A design for additive manufacturing (DfAM) framework was adopted, with simulation data iteratively informing the final design. Findings Process parameters can vary manufacturing costs of a stool by over AU$1,000 and vary print time by over 100 h. Following simulation, designers can use the knowledge to inform iteration, with a second variation of the design being approximately 50 per cent cheaper and approximately 50 per cent faster to manufacture. Metrology data reveal a tolerance = 0.342 per cent in overall dimensions, and surface roughness data are presented for a 0.5 mm layer height. Research limitations/implications Led by design, this study did not seek to explore the full gamut of settings available in slicing software, focusing predominantly on nozzle diameter, layer height and number of walls alongside the recommended settings from BigRep. The study reveals numerous areas for future research, including more technical studies. Practical implications When knowledge and techniques from desktop 3 D printing are scaled up to dimensions measuring in meters, new opportunities and challenges are presented for design engineers. Print times and material costs in particular are scaled up significantly, and this study provides numerous considerations for research centers, 3 D printing bureaus and manufacturers considering large-scale fused filament fabrication manufacturing. Originality/value This is the first peer-reviewed study involving the BigRep ONE, and new knowledge is presented about the practical application of the printer through a design-led project. Important relationships between material volume/cost and print time are valuable for early adopters.

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Mechanical feasibility of ABS/HIPS-based multi-material structures primed by low-cost polymer printer

Rapid Prototyping Journal ◽

10.1108/rpj-01-2018-0028 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 25 (1) ◽

pp. 152-161 ◽

Cited By ~ 19

Author(s):

Sunpreet Singh ◽

Narinder Singh ◽

Munish Gupta ◽

Chander Prakash ◽

Rupinder Singh

Keyword(s):

Low Cost ◽

Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene ◽

Sem Analysis ◽

Bending Test ◽

Fused Filament Fabrication ◽

Content Type ◽

Multiple Parameters ◽

Mechanical Responses ◽

Bending Load ◽

Input Variables

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to fabricate acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS)/high impact polystyrene (HIPS) based multi-material geometries using a low cost polymer printer. At the same time, efforts have been made to investigate the mechanical characteristics of the obtained prints and to perform the optimization using the Taguchi-Grey (TGRA) method. Design/methodology/approach Initially, the feedstock materials were in-house fabricated in the form of filament wires, workable with fused filament fabrication (FFF) technique, of 1.75 ± 0.1 mm diameter by using a single screw extruder. Multi-material structures were fabricated using variable parameters (such as: raster angles, layer height, fill density and solid layers) and the experimentation was conducted as per Taguchi L18 array. Mechanical responses obtained by performing tensile, impact and bending test were studied in response to input variables and ultimately optimized settings were obtained, for individual as well as multiple parameters). Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis was performed to analyze the fractured surfaces. Findings The Signal/Noise (S/N) plots for the quality characteristics highlighted that selected input parameters significantly influenced the obtained values for tensile strength, impact strength and flexural strength. Micrographs of the fractured specimens showed the occurrence of brittle fracture with higher levels of perimeter, infill density and solid layers. The extent of delamination was also increased under the bending load and further increased by increasing solid layers. Practical implications The results of the study strongly advocated the utility of fabricated multi-materials structures in automotive, aerospace and other manufacturing industries. Originality/value This work represents the fabrication, testing and analysis of polymer-based multi-material structures for engineering applications.

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Fatigue Performance of ABS Specimens Obtained by Fused Filament Fabrication

Materials ◽

10.3390/ma11122521 ◽

2018 ◽

Vol 11 (12) ◽

pp. 2521 ◽

Cited By ~ 8

Author(s):

Miquel Domingo-Espin ◽

J. Antonio Travieso-Rodriguez ◽

Ramon Jerez-Mesa ◽

Jordi Lluma-Fuentes

Keyword(s):

Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene ◽

Experimental Phase ◽

Fused Filament Fabrication ◽

Layer Height ◽

Bending Stresses ◽

Best Parameter ◽

End Use ◽

Design And Manufacture ◽

Printing Speed ◽

Butadiene Styrene

In this paper, the fatigue response of fused filament fabrication (FFF) Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) parts is studied. Different building parameters (layer height, nozzle diameter, infill density, and printing speed) were chosen to study their influence on the lifespan of cylindrical specimens according to a design of experiments (DOE) using the Taguchi methodology. The same DOE was applied on two different specimen sets using two different infill patterns—rectilinear and honeycomb. The results show that the infill density is the most important parameter for both of the studied patterns. The specimens manufactured with the honeycomb pattern show longer lifespans. The best parameter set associated to that infill was chosen for a second experimental phase, in which the specimens were tested under different maximum bending stresses so as to construct the Wöhler curve associated with this 3D printing configuration. The results of this study are useful to design and manufacture ABS end-use parts that are expected to work under oscillating periodic loads.

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Shape-driven control of layer height in robotic wire and arc additive manufacturing

Rapid Prototyping Journal ◽

10.1108/rpj-11-2018-0295 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 25 (10) ◽

pp. 1637-1646 ◽

Cited By ~ 1

Author(s):

Bohao Xu ◽

Xiaodong Tan ◽

Xizhi Gu ◽

Donghong Ding ◽

Yuelin Deng ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Additive Manufacturing ◽

Deposition Rate ◽

Control Method ◽

Single Layer ◽

Optimization Method ◽

Content Type ◽

Layer Height ◽

Layer Deposition ◽

Complex Shapes ◽

The Difference

Purpose Once an uneven substrate is aligned, traditional control theories and methods can be used on it, so aligning is of great significance for the development of wire and arc additive manufacturing (WAAM). This paper aims to propose a shape-driven control method for aligning a substrate with slopes to expand the application of WAAM. Design/methodology/approach A substrate with slopes must be aligned by depositing weld beads with slopes. First, considering the large height differences of slopes, multi-layer deposition is needed, and the number of layer of weld beads must be ascertained. Second, the change in the deposition rate is controlled as a ramp function to generate weld beads with slopes. Third, the variation of the deposition rate must be fine-tuned to compensate for the deviation between the actual and theoretical layer heights at the deposition of each layer. Finally, the parameters of the ramp functions at the deposition of each layer are determined through an optimization method. Findings First, to model the response function of layer height to deposition rate, the experiments are conducted with the deposition rate jumping from 4 to 8 mm/s and from 8 to 4 mm/s. When the deposition rate jumps from 4 to 8 mm/s and from 8 to 4 mm/s, the difference in the height of each layer decreases as the number of layer increases. Second, the variation of the deposition rate can be fine-tuned based on the deviation between the measured and theoretical layer heights because the variation of the deposition rate is proportional to the layer height when the initial and end deposition rates are near 4 or 8 mm/s, respectively. Third, the experimental results demonstrate that the proposed method is effective for single-layer aligning and aligning a substrate with one or more slopes. Originality/value The proposed method can expand the application of WAAM to an uneven substrate with slopes and lays the foundation for aligning tasks focused on uneven substrates with more complex shapes.

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Suitability of Recycled PLA Filament Application in Fused Filament Fabrication Process

Tehnički glasnik ◽

10.31803/tg-20210805120621 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 15 (4) ◽

pp. 491-497

Author(s):

Tomislav Breški ◽

Lukas Hentschel ◽

Damir Godec ◽

Ivica Đuretek

Keyword(s):

Mechanical Properties ◽

Additive Manufacturing ◽

Polylactic Acid ◽

Design Of Experiment ◽

Experimental Approach ◽

Manufacturing Processes ◽

Support Structures ◽

Fused Filament Fabrication ◽

Layer Height ◽

Printing Parameters

Fused filament fabrication (FFF) is currently one of the most popular additive manufacturing processes due to its simplicity and low running and material costs. Support structures, which are necessary for overhanging surfaces during production, in most cases need to be manually removed and as such, they become waste material. In this paper, experimental approach is utilised in order to assess suitability of recycling support structures into recycled filament for FFF process. Mechanical properties of standardized specimens made from recycled polylactic acid (PLA) filament as well as influence of layer height and infill density on those properties were investigated. Optimal printing parameters for recycled PLA filaments are determined with Design of Experiment methods (DOE).

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Predicting strength of additively manufactured thermoplastic polymer parts produced using material extrusion

Rapid Prototyping Journal ◽

10.1108/rpj-02-2017-0026 ◽

2018 ◽

Vol 24 (2) ◽

pp. 321-332 ◽

Cited By ~ 14

Author(s):

Joseph Bartolai ◽

Timothy W. Simpson ◽

Renxuan Xie

Keyword(s):

Infrared Imaging ◽

Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene ◽

Temperature History ◽

Interface Temperature ◽

Fused Filament Fabrication ◽

Content Type ◽

Material Extrusion ◽

Rheological Data ◽

History Of ◽

Butadiene Styrene

Purpose The weakest point in additively manufactured polymer parts produced by material extrusion additive manufacturing (MEAM) is the interface between adjacent layers and deposition toolpaths or “roads”. This study aims to predict the mechanical strength of parts by utilizing a novel analytical approach. Strength predictions are made using the temperature history of these interfaces, polymer rheological data, and polymer weld theory. Design/methodology/approach The approach is validated using experimental data for two common 3D-printed polymers: polycarbonate (PC) and acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS). Interface temperature history data are collected in situ using infrared imaging. Rheological data of the polycarbonate and acrylonitrile butadiene styrene used to fabricate the fused filament fabrication parts in this study have been determined experimentally. Findings The strength of the interfaces has been predicted, to within 10% of experimental strength, using polymer weld theory from the literature adapted to the specific properties of the polycarbonate and acrylonitrile butadiene styrene feedstock used in this study. Originality/value This paper introduces a novel approach for predicting the strength of parts produced by MEAM based on the strength of interfaces using polymer weld theory, polymer rheology, temperature history of the interface and the forces applied to the interface. Unlike methods that require experimental strength data as a prediction input, the proposed approach is material and build orientation agnostic once fundamental parameters related to material composition have been determined.

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Additive manufacturing of 316L stainless-steel structures using fused filament fabrication technology: mechanical and geometric properties

Rapid Prototyping Journal ◽

10.1108/rpj-06-2020-0120 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol ahead-of-print (ahead-of-print) ◽

Author(s):

Miguel Ángel Caminero ◽

Ana Romero ◽

Jesús Miguel Chacón ◽

Pedro José Núñez ◽

Eustaquio García-Plaza ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Stainless Steel ◽

Additive Manufacturing ◽

Austenitic Stainless Steel ◽

Material Properties ◽

Steel Structures ◽

Fused Filament Fabrication ◽

Geometric Properties ◽

Content Type ◽

Build Orientation ◽

Manufacturing Alternatives

Purpose Fused filament fabrication (FFF) technique using metal filled filaments in combination with debinding and sintering steps can be a cost-effective alternative for laser-based powder bed fusion processes. The mechanical behaviour of FFF-metal materials is highly dependent on the processing parameters, filament quality and adjusted post-processing steps. In addition, the microstructural material properties and geometric characteristics are inherent to the manufacturing process. The purpose of this study is to characterize the mechanical and geometric performance of three-dimensional (3-D) printed FFF 316 L metal components manufactured by a low-cost desktop 3-D printer. The debinding and sintering processes are carried out using the BASF catalytic debinding process in combination with the BASF 316LX Ultrafuse filament. Special attention is paid on the effects of build orientation and printing strategy of the FFF-based technology on the tensile and geometric performance of the 3-D printed 316 L metal specimens. Design/methodology/approach This study uses a toolset of experimental analysis techniques [metallography and scanning electron microcope (SEM)] to characterize the effect of microstructure and defects on the material properties under tensile testing. Shrinkage and the resulting porosity of the 3-D printed 316 L stainless steel sintered samples are also analysed. The deformation behaviour is investigated for three different build orientations. The tensile test curves are further correlated with the damage surface using SEM images and metallographic sections to present grain deformation during the loading progress. Mechanical properties are directly compared to other works in the field and similar additive manufacturing (AM) and Metal Injection Moulding (MIM) manufacturing alternatives from the literature. Findings It has been shown that the effect of build orientation was of particular significance on the mechanical and geometric performance of FFF-metal 3-D printed samples. In particular, Flat and On-edge samples showed an average increase in tensile performance of 21.7% for the tensile strength, 65.1% for the tensile stiffness and 118.3% for maximum elongation at fracture compared to the Upright samples. Furthermore, it has been able to manufacture near-dense 316 L austenitic stainless steel components using FFF. These properties are comparable to those obtained by other metal conventional processes such as MIM process. Originality/value 316L austenitic stainless steel components using FFF technology with a porosity lower than 2% were successfully manufactured. The presented study provides more information regarding the dependence of the mechanical, microstructural and geometric properties of FFF 316 L components on the build orientation and printing strategy.

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Sustainable Additive Manufacturing: Mechanical Response of Acrylonitrile-Butadiene-Styrene over Multiple Recycling Processes

Sustainability ◽

10.3390/su12093568 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 12 (9) ◽

pp. 3568 ◽

Cited By ~ 7

Author(s):

Nectarios Vidakis ◽

Markos Petousis ◽

Athena Maniadi ◽

Emmanuel Koudoumas ◽

Achilles Vairis ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Additive Manufacturing ◽

Mechanical Behavior ◽

Mechanical Response ◽

Positive Impact ◽

Research Work ◽

Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene ◽

Experimental Simulation ◽

Recycling Rate ◽

Fused Filament Fabrication ◽

Butadiene Styrene

Sustainability in additive manufacturing refers mainly to the recycling rate of polymers and composites used in fused filament fabrication (FFF), which nowadays are rapidly increasing in volume and value. Recycling of such materials is mostly a thermomechanical process that modifies their overall mechanical behavior. The present research work focuses on the acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS) polymer, which is the second most popular material used in FFF-3D printing. In order to investigate the effect of the recycling courses on the mechanical response of the ABS polymer, an experimental simulation of the recycling process that isolates the thermomechanical treatment from other parameters (i.e., contamination, ageing, etc.) has been performed. To quantify the effect of repeated recycling processes on the mechanic response of the ABS polymer, a wide variety of mechanical tests were conducted on FFF-printed specimens. Regarding this, standard tensile, compression, flexion, impact and micro-hardness tests were performed per recycle repetition. The findings prove that the mechanical response of the recycled ABS polymer is generally improved over the recycling repetitions for a certain number of repetitions. An optimum overall mechanical behavior is found between the third and the fifth repetition, indicating a significant positive impact of the ABS polymer recycling, besides the environmental one.

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Effect of extrusion temperature on fused filament fabrication parts orthotropic behaviour

Rapid Prototyping Journal ◽

10.1108/rpj-08-2019-0207 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 26 (4) ◽

pp. 639-647

Author(s):

Michele Angelo Attolico ◽

Caterina Casavola ◽

Alberto Cazzato ◽

Vincenzo Moramarco ◽

Gilda Renna

Keyword(s):

Mechanical Properties ◽

Morphological Characteristics ◽

Single Layer ◽

Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene ◽

Surface Characteristics ◽

Tensile Tests ◽

Extrusion Temperature ◽

Fused Filament Fabrication ◽

Bonding Quality ◽

Content Type

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to verify the effects of extrusion temperature on orthotropic behaviour of the mechanical properties of parts obtained by fused filament fabrication (FFF) under quasi-static tensile loads. Design/methodology/approach Tensile tests were performed on single layer specimens fabricated in polylactic acid (PLA) and acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) to evaluate the mechanical properties at different extrusion temperatures and raster orientations (0°, 45° and 90°). Furthermore, a detailed study of morphological characteristics of the single layer samples cross-section and of the bonding quality among adjacent deposited filaments was performed by scanning electron microscopy to correlate the morphology of materials with mechanical behaviour. Findings The results show that the orthotropic behaviour of FFF-printed parts tends to reduce, while the mechanical properties improved with increase in extrusion temperature. Furthermore, the increase in extrusion temperature led to an improvement in inter-raster bonding quality and in the compactness and homogeneity of the parts. Originality/value The relation between the extrusion temperature, orthotropic behaviour and morphological surface characteristics of the single layer specimen obtained by FFF has not been previously reported.

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Impact of Print Parameters on Pressure Drop in Turbulent Flow Through 3-D Printed Pipes

Volume 2: Fluid Mechanics; Multiphase Flows ◽

10.1115/fedsm2020-20252 ◽

2020 ◽

Author(s):

Thomas G. Shepard ◽

John Wentz ◽

Tucker Bender ◽

Derek Olmschenk ◽

Alex Gutenberg

Keyword(s):

Surface Roughness ◽

Additive Manufacturing ◽

Flow Characteristics ◽

Internal Flow ◽

Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene ◽

Industrial Applications ◽

Relative Pressure ◽

Fused Filament Fabrication ◽

Pressure Drops ◽

Flow Through

Abstract Flow conduits made via additive manufacturing, commonly referred to as 3-D printing, are of increasing interest for a variety of industrial applications due to the ability to create unique and conformal flow paths that would not be possible with other fabrication techniques. Fused filament fabrication (FFF) is an additive manufacturing technique that is seeing new interest in the creation of internal flow channels with its ability to print high-temperature polymers and soluble supports. Printing parameter choices in the FFF printing process result in surfaces that can have significant profile differences that may significantly impact the flow characteristics within the conduits. In this study, two print parameters were experimentally studied for turbulent water flow through circular pipes created by fused filament fabrication out of acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS). The print layer orientation relative to the flow was investigated for printing layers parallel, perpendicular, and at 45 degrees from the flow axis. Layer thickness were varied from 0.254 mm to 0.330 mm and all channels were created using soluble support structures. Pressure drops were measured for fully developed flow through pipes with an inside diameter of 5 mm and Reynolds numbers up to 62,000. Results are presented in terms of relative pressure drops as well as the wall surface roughness that would lead to such impacts. These flow-determined grain surface roughnesses are then compared against measurements of print surface roughness.

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