Background: Environmental exposures such as smoking are widely recognized risk factors in the emergence of lung diseases such as lung cancer and acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). However, the strength of environmental exposures is difficult to measure, making it challenging to understand their impacts. On the other hand, some COVID-19 patients develop ARDS in an unfavorable disease progression and smoking has been suggested as a potential risk factor among others. Yet initial studies on COVID-19 cases reported contradictory results on the effects of smoking on the disease. Some suggest that smoking might have a protective effect against it while other studies report an increased risk. A better understanding of how the exposure to smoking and other environmental factors affect biological processes relevant to SARS-CoV-2 infection and unfavorable disease progression is needed. Approach: In this study, we utilize mutational signatures associated with environmental factors as sensors of their exposure level. Many environmental factors including smoking are mutagenic and leave characteristic patterns of mutations, called mutational signatures, in affected genomes. We postulated that analyzing mutational signatures, combined with gene expression, can shed light on the impact of the mutagenic environmental factors to the biological processes. In particular, we utilized mutational signatures from lung adenocarcinoma (LUAD) data set collected in TCGA to investigate the role of environmental factors in COVID-19 vulnerabilities. Integrating mutational signatures with gene expression in normal tissues and using a pathway level analysis, we examined how the exposure to smoking and other mutagenic environmental factors affects the infectivity of the virus and disease progression. Results: By delineating changes associated with smoking in pathway-level gene expression and cell type proportions, our study demonstrates that mutational signatures can be utilized to study the impact of exogenous mutagenic factors on them. Consistent with previous findings, our analysis showed that smoking mutational signature (SBS4) is associated with activation of cytokines mediated singling pathways, leading to inflammatory responses. Smoking related changes in cell composition were also observed, including the correlation of SBS4 with the expansion of goblet cells. On the other hand, increased basal cells and decreased ciliated cells in proportion were associated with the strength of a different mutational signature (SBS5), which is present abundantly but not exclusively in smokers. In addition, we found that smoking increases the expression levels of genes that are upregulated in severe COVID-19 cases. Jointly, these results suggest an unfavorable impact of smoking on the disease progression and also provide novel findings on how smoking impacts biological processes in lung.
Influence of microbiota on immunity and immunotherapy for gastric and esophageal cancers
