Affective and Cognitive Dimensions of Religious Experience: Toward a Conceptual/Theoretical Integrative Perspective

2012 ◽  
Vol 41 (1) ◽  
pp. 33-45 ◽  
Author(s):  
Marsha Hewitt

Although it may be widely accepted that the capacity for religious experience constitutes a mental state which, as with all mental states and inner experiences, has a neurological foundation, it is not so readily agreed upon as to what the psychological significance of such a state might be. That is to say, what are the affective components that pertain to that ‘more’ of religious experience that can be identified across specific religious traditions and histories? For William James, the proper study of religions must begin with the actual, felt religious experiences of human beings in specific contexts. Yet it is this focus on religious experience that appears to leave some contemporary theorists of religion uneasy, as if the exploration of the affective dimension negates or ‘softens’ the by now clear neurological basis of religious experience and beliefs. Underlying this unease, of course, is that the psychological/phenomenological approach conceals a hidden theological interest. That this is often true is more by contingency than theoretical necessity. This unease goes back at least as far as Freud’s ambivalence toward the ‘oceanic feeling,’ or what cognitive archaeologist David Lewis-Williams refers to as ‘absolute unitary being,’ which is a widely valued feature of religious experience for believers. This ambivalence should not marginalize the importance of ‘psychological significance,’ however, as it did in Freud’s writing on religion and as it continues to do in that of contemporary theorists, particularly those who turn to neuroscience as an important explanatory resource in the study of religious experience. This paper will argue that conceptual balance addressing the emotional and biological elements of religious experience is methodologically more adequate and theoretically richer than more strictly cognitive approaches, and will focus most centrally on the work of Sigmund Freud and David Lewis-Williams. Si l’idée que la capacité à l’expérience religieuse constitue un état mental qui, comme tous les états mentaux ou expériences intérieures, a une fondation neurologique est très largement partagée, la signification psychologique d’un tel état ne fait pas l’objet d’un tel consensus. En d’autres termes, quels sont les éléments affectifs ayant trait à ce « plus » de l’expérience religieuse qui peuvent être identifiés à travers les traditions et histoires spécifiques des religions ? Pour William James, l’étude des religions doit commencer par l’expérience réelle et ressentie par les êtres humains dans des contextes spécifiques. Cependant, cette attention portée à l’expérience religieuse semble laisser les théoriciens contemporains mal à l’aise, comme si l’exploration de cette dimension affective niait ou minimisait la base aujourd’hui clairement neurologique de l’expérience religieuse et des croyances. Accentuant ce malaise, bien sûr, l’approche psychologique/phénoménologique dissimule un présupposé théologique caché. Si ceci est souvent vrai, ça l’est par contingence plus que par nécessité théorique. Ce malaise nous renvoie au moins jusqu’à l’ambivalence freudienne envers le « sentiment océanique », ou à ce que l’archéologue constructiviste David Lewis-Williams appelle l’ ‘être absolu et un’ qui est un trait largement valorisé de l’expérience religieuse pour les croyants. Cette ambivalence ne doit pas marginaliser l’importance de la ‘signification psychologique’, comme ce fut le cas depuis les écrits de Freud sur la religion jusque chez les théoriciens contemporains, plus particulièrement ceux qui considèrent les neurosciences comme une ressource explicative dans l’étude de l’expérience religieuse. Cet article qui portera principalement sur les travaux de Sigmund Freud and David Lewis-Williams, montrera que l’équilibre conceptuel entre les éléments émotionnels et biologiques de l’expérience religieuse est plus adéquat et, d’un point de vue théorique, plus riche que des approches strictement cognitives.

Author(s):  
Stephen S. Bush

William James made signal contributions to the philosophical and psychological study of religion. One of James’s greatest contributions to the study of religion is his defense of the permissibility of religious beliefs. In his essay “Will to Believe,” he argues that it can be permissible (morally and epistemically), if certain criteria are met, to hold beliefs for which one does not have conclusive evidence in support (provided there isn’t conclusive evidence against). This applies to religious beliefs, but also to moral beliefs and certain beliefs that are essential to our social lives and to the scientific enterprise. His second-greatest contribution to the study of religion is his methodological focus on individuals’ religious experiences, which we see most extensively in Varieties of Religious Experience. In addition to these two contributions, he has important things to say on the relation between religion and other aspects of culture, such as ethics, politics, science, and philosophy.


1968 ◽  
Vol 4 (1) ◽  
pp. 1-24
Author(s):  
F. David Martin

William James catalogued an amazing diversity of religious experiences. Yet even the pluralistic James was able to find a nucleus, consisting of an uneasiness and its solution, ‘1. The uneasiness, reduced to its simplest terms, is a sense that there is something wrong about us as we naturally stand. 2. The solution is a sense that we are saved from the wrongness by making proper connection with the higher powers.’ But by stressing the moral factor, James seems to exclude those who stress rather the sense of mystery stemming from man's theoretical limitations. Einstein, for example, writes: ‘The most beautiful thing we can experience is the mysterious side of life. It is the deep feeling which is at the cradle of all true art and science. In this sense, and only in this sense, I count myself amongst the most deeply religious people.’ For Einstein as for Pascal (Pensées, Fr. 267): ‘The last proceeding of reason is to recognise that there is an infinity of things which are beyond it.’ Thus I propose the following revision of James' conception of the nucleus of the religious experience: (1) uneasy awareness of the limitations of man's moral or theoretical powers, especially when reality is restricted to sense data and natural objects; (2) awe-full awareness of a further reality—beyond or behind or within; (3) conviction that participation with this further reality is of supreme importance.


Author(s):  
Markus Riedenauer

Abstract At the End of Modern Security: William James on Religious Experience William James defends religious belief as a reasonable option against a kind of widespread agnosticism which he calls scientific absolutism, and against the dogmatism which he sees in the natural theology of his time. On the basis of his collection of essays “The Will to Believe”, the article reconstructs his arguments and the epistemological foundation of his famous treatment of religious experience in “The Varieties of Religious Experience”. James’ pragmatistic approach, which he calls radical empiricism, resists the exclusion of “mystical” experiences of conversion and redemption, and of religious faith from the realm of reasonable attitudes. Experiences of the astonishing gift of being, of trust and openness, courage and motivation to endure life’s evils can validate religious faith. In so far as modern rationality with its highest expression in the sciences is rooted in an existential quest for security, the underlying attitude towards life unnecessarily prevents personal experiences of the divine and salvation and unreasonably devaluates attitudes of faith. James defends the desiring nature of human beings and opens up the space for legitimate religious experience.


CNS Spectrums ◽  
2002 ◽  
Vol 7 (12) ◽  
pp. 850-850
Author(s):  
Michael Trimble

A centenary is often an excuse for reminding people of the life and work of a predecessor, especially if the material is of contemporary relevance. Published 100 years ago, William James' The Varieties of Religious Experience, remains the most revealing investigation into the psychology of religion. James, a nonpracticing MD, turned his thoughts to psychology and philosophy. The book was considered “one of the great books of our time” and in it, James bravely tackled a subject that many then, and perhaps now, considered taboo.James' aim was to study religious experiences as he would any other psychological phenomena, accepting their reality and vulnerability to scientific enquiry. His definition of religion was “the feelings, acts, and experiences of individual men in their solitude, so far as they apprehend themselves to stand in relation to whatever they may consider the divine.” He was concerned with immediate personal experiences, which he considered to be universal to humanity.In his lecture, “Religion and Neurology,” he explored the potential psychophysical associations of religious feelings. In order to understand the nature of religious experience, James emphasized the need to study those for whom religion was “an acute fever,” and not to dwell long on those whose commerce with the deity was “second hand.” The ones to study were the “geniuses of the religious line.” However, he warned that they “like many other geniuses that have brought forth fruits effective enough for commemoration in the pages of biography, have often shown symptoms of nervous instability.” He pointed out that “insane conditions” have a considerable advantage for studies of this kind because they isolate specific factors of the mental life that become available for investigation.


2018 ◽  
Vol 40 (2-3) ◽  
pp. 307-325 ◽  
Author(s):  
Katie Givens Kime ◽  
John R. Snarey

The neuroscience revolution has revived interpretations of religious experiences as wholly dependent on biological conditions. William James cautioned against allowing such neurological reductionism to overwhelm other useful perspectives. Contemporary psychologists of religion have raised similar cautions, but have failed to engage James as a full conversation partner. In this article, we present a contemporary, applied version of James's perspective. We clarify the problem by reviewing specific James-like contemporary concerns about reductionism in the neuropsychological study of religion. Then, most centrally, we employ three of James's conceptual tools—pragmatism, pluralism, and radical empiricism—to moderate contemporary reductionism. Finally, we point to a constructive approach through which neuroscientists might collaborate with scholars in the humanities and psychosocial sciences, which is consistent with our conclusion that it is often no longer fruitful to separate neurobiological studies from studies that are psychosocial or sociocultural.


2012 ◽  
Vol 22 (27) ◽  
pp. 45-56
Author(s):  
Michał Mazurkiewicz

In this article, the author analyses the phenomenon of myth—a significant element of culture—by presenting miscellaneous types of myths that have accompanied human beings from the dawn of time to the present, interpreting them from the point of view of (for example) philosophy or psychoanalysis, the functions of myths, and their ways of influencing human beings in the contemporary world. Myths are complex cultural phenomena, difficult to assess unambiguously. One of the main reasons is the fact that they are not only holy tales having some religious background; we can also talk about secular myths, for example in art or in sport. As far as our contemporary world—brazenly hi-tech and filled with the spirit of logos—is concerned, it is an interesting fact that myths do not surface but remain hidden, as it were; they are in many cases a subconscious way of seeing things. It depends on the individual whether he or she somehow notices those wisdoms existing somewhere under the mask of the world, industrialized and permeated by unemotional technology as it is. Without a shadow of a doubt, myths fulfil many important functions—they are a wonderful source of wisdom, teach people humility, and give hope and strength in difficult periods. Undoubtedly, they are not—as some people would probably prefer—mere relics of a distant past. The forms of myths may, however, evolve. Looking closely into this phenomenon, one can notice that myths may occur (in different realms of life) in somewhat changed, modernized forms. The author of this article has based his analysis on numerous works of a group of illustrious researchers who specialize in exploring the phenomenon of myth, e.g., among others: Bronisław Malinowski (a Polish anthropologist, one of the most important anthropologists of the 20th century), Mircea Eliade (a Romanian historian of religion, one of the leading interpreters of religious experience), and Sigmund Freud (an Austrian neurologist, founder of the discipline of psychoanalysis).


2011 ◽  
Vol 74 (4) ◽  
pp. 258-275
Author(s):  
Gerd Theissen

The article gives an outline of New Testament hermeneutics based on a hermeneutic of religion. Religions are sign worlds constructed by human beings. They refer to transcendence, a foundational story, imply moral imperatives, and form a community. The Bible is the basis of the Christian sign world that is constructed by two axioms (monotheism and Christology) and many basic beliefs. The Bible interprets and initiates religious experience. The basic religious experiences are: an amazement of the mystery of being, an experience of absolute confidence and of responsibility (cf. Ludwig Wittgenstein). These experiences pervade all four dimensions of the Bible: a kerygmatic message based in transcendence, a historical reference to the history Jesus, an ethical impact, and a canonical dimension, i.e. a relationship to churches. In modern times this implies a relationship to other religions. The article suggests therefore an edition of the Bible with an inter-religious appendix.


Author(s):  
Kirk Lougheed

Conciliationism is the view that says when an agent who believes P becomes aware of an epistemic peer who believes not-P, that she encounters a (partial) defeater for her belief that P. Strong versions of conciliationism pose a sceptical threat to many, if not most, religious beliefs since religion is rife with peer disagreement. Elsewhere (Removed) I argue that one way for a religious believer to avoid sceptical challenges posed by strong conciliationism is by appealing to the evidential import of religious experience. Not only can religious experience be used to establish a relevant evidential asymmetry between disagreeing parties, but reliable reports of such experiences also start to put pressure on the religious sceptic to conciliate toward her religious opponent. Recently, however, Asha Lancaster-Thomas poses a highly innovative challenge to the evidential import of religious experience. Namely, she argues that an evil God is just as likely to explain negative religious experiences as a good God is able to explain positive religious experiences. In light of this, religious believers need to explain why a good God exists instead of an evil God. I respond to Lancaster-Thomas by suggesting that, at least within the context of religious experience, (i) that the evil God hypothesis is only a challenge to certain versions of theism; and (ii) that the existence of an evil God and good God are compossible.


Author(s):  
T.J. Kasperbauer

This chapter applies the psychological account from chapter 3 on how we rank human beings above other animals, to the particular case of using mental states to assign animals moral status. Experiments on the psychology of mental state attribution are discussed, focusing on their implications for human moral psychology. The chapter argues that attributions of phenomenal states, like emotions, drive our assignments of moral status. It also describes how this is significantly impacted by the process of dehumanization. Psychological research on anthropocentrism and using animals as food and as companions is discussed in order to illuminate the relationship between dehumanization and mental state attribution.


Perspectiva ◽  
2018 ◽  
Vol 36 (3) ◽  
pp. 961-977 ◽  
Author(s):  
Mario Sérgio Coutinho Matos ◽  
Marcus Vinicius Cunha

Este artigo analisa as concepções educacionais de William James no livro Talks to teachers on psychology, de 1899, no qual se encontra a noção de ensino como arte. Para ampliar o entendimento dessa noção, recorre-se às reflexões feitas por James no livro The varieties of religious experience, de 1902. O artigo tem por objetivo revitalizar as concepções jamesianas visando a contribuir com autores que discutem criticamente as tendências dominantes hoje na educação.


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