MiR-27a-3p: An AR-modulatory microRNA with a distinct role in prostate cancer progression and therapy.

2020 ◽  
Vol 38 (6_suppl) ◽  
pp. 193-193
Author(s):  
Foteini Kalofonou ◽  
Ailsa Sita-Lumsden ◽  
Damien Leach ◽  
Claire Fletcher ◽  
Jonathan Waxman ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Prostate Cancer ◽  
Cell Lines ◽  
Cancer Progression ◽  
Normal Tissue ◽  
Target Genes ◽  
Tumour Suppressor ◽  
Mrna Levels ◽  
Protein Levels ◽  
Androgen Ablation ◽  
Castrate Resistant

193 Background: Prostate cancer (PCa) is an androgen dependent malignancy. PCa patients initially respond to androgen ablation but eventually the disease becomes castrate resistant. MicroRNAs (miRs) are considered to be master regulators of gene expression and could be potential biomarkers and therapeutic targets for PCa. We previously showed miR-27a-3p to be an androgen receptor (AR)-modulatory oncomiR, with a role in PCa progression. Methods: RNA sequencing was carried out on xenograft tumours treated with an inhibitory antisense oligonucleotide for miR-27a (ASO-27a), or control. Differentially expressed genes were cross-referenced with publicly available patient tissue datasets. ASO-27a was transfected in a panel of PCa cell lines mirroring disease progression, to verify changes in transcriptional and translational levels. Immunohistochemical analysis of encoded proteins was undertaken in a cohort of 46 PCa patients with Gleason 3+4 or 4+3 disease and compared with normal tissue-control. Results: Putative target genes tested included the tumour suppressor HIP2, the oncogenes SRC3, YAP, and PAX3, which can act both as oncogene and tumour suppressor. MRNA or protein levels of the majority of those genes tested were upregulated after ASO-27a treatment of PCa cell lines. In 22Rv1 cells, HIPK2 mRNA levels were significantly upregulated with ASO-27a (p = 0.0137), while protein levels were downregulated . PAX3 mRNA levels were significantly reduced by ASO-27a in 22Rv1 cells (p = 0.0364), while protein levels were significantly increased (p = 0.0112). Immunohistochemically, PAX3 protein was lower in Gleason 7 tumours than in normal tissue, while YAP expression was higher in patients with Gleason 4+3, relative to those with 3+4. SRC3 immunostaining was slightly, but not significantly, higher in patients with 3+4 compared to 4+3. Conclusions: MiR-27a-3p is an AR-modulatory oncomiR in PCa, with potential as a therapeutic target. MiR-27a interaction with its target genes and especially HIPK2, YAP, SRC3 and PAX3 could provide the basis for therapeutic advance in screening and in the treatment of castrate resistant disease, through ASO-27a inhibition.

MiR-1271-5p: An AR-modulatory microRNA with a distinct role in prostate cancer progression, through SND1 and MORF4L1 interaction.

2019 ◽  
Vol 37 (15_suppl) ◽  
pp. e16562-e16562
Author(s):  
Foteini Kalofonou ◽  
Damien Leach ◽  
Mark Hamilton ◽  
Sean Eric Mcguire ◽  
Claire Fletcher ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Prostate Cancer ◽  
Cell Lines ◽  
Cancer Progression ◽  
Target Genes ◽  
Prostatic Tissue ◽  
Screening Methods ◽  
Mrna Levels ◽  
Resistant Disease ◽  
Castrate Resistant

e16562 Background: Current screening methodologies for prostate cancer (PCa) are relatively insensitive and there is a need for new treatments for castrate resistant disease. MicroRNAs (miRs) are considered to be master regulators of the genome. We have investigated the role of miRs in modulating androgen receptor function and their potential as treatments of PCa. We report that the AR-modulatory miR-1271-5p also targets SND1 and MORF4L1 and may have a role in PCa progression and screening. Methods: AGO2-PAR-CLIP analysis was performed to ascertain miR-1271-5p target genes in human PCa cell lines. MiR-1271-5p levels were manipulated in cell lines by transfection with miR mimic and or antisense inhibitor. SND1 and MORF4L1 were confirmed as targets by real-time qPCR and western blotting. The functional role of miR-1271-5p and its target genes was assessed by SRB growth assays . Immunohistochemical detection of SND1 and MORF4L1 expression was studied in a cohort of 63 PCa patients and compared with normal controls. Results: MORF4L1 mRNA levels were significantly reduced with the use of miR-1271-5p mimic in 22RV1 cells (p = 0.001), while SND1 mRNA levels were significantly decreased with the use of miR-1271-5p inhibitor in C42 cells (p = 0.0014). Targeting SND1 or MORF4L1, in combination with miR inhibition, significantly reduced C42 (p = 0.0003) and 22RV1 (p = 0.0014) cell growth. MORF4L1 expression was higher in patients with Gleason score (GS) 4+3 relative to those with GS 3+4 and in PCa tissue, as compared with normal prostatic tissue, but did not reach significance. SND1 immunostaining was significantly higher in patients with GS 4+3 or GS 3+4 PCa, compared with normal prostatic tissue (p = 0.0211, p = 0.0007 respectively). SND1 staining was significantly higher in patients with GS 4+3, compared to GS 3+4 (p = 0.0431) or GS 3+3 (p = 0.0251). Conclusions: MiR-1271-5p is an AR-modulatory microRNA, which shows great potential as a biomarker and therapeutic target in PCa. The interaction of miR-1271-5p with its target genes SND1 and MORF4L1 could provide the basis for therapeutic advance in screening and in the treatment of castrate resistant PCa.

scholarly journals Prognostic value of TERF1 expression in prostate cancer

2021 ◽  
Vol 33 (1) ◽  
Author(s):  
Gabriel Arantes dos Santos ◽  
Nayara Izabel Viana ◽  
Ruan Pimenta ◽  
Vanessa Ribeiro Guimarães ◽  
Juliana Alves de Camargo ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Prostate Cancer ◽  
Overall Survival ◽  
Cell Lines ◽  
Normal Tissue ◽  
Receptor Expression ◽  
Telomere Maintenance ◽  
Localized Prostate Cancer ◽  
Cancer Tissue ◽  
Mrna Levels ◽  
Clinical Specimens

Abstract Background Telomere dysfunction is one of the hallmarks of cancer and is crucial to prostate carcinogenesis. TERF1 is a gene essential to telomere maintenance, and its dysfunction has already been associates with several cancers. TERF1 is a target of miR-155, and this microRNA can inhibit its expression and promotes carcinogenesis in breast cancer. We aim to analyze TERF1, in gene and mRNA level, involvement in prostate cancer progression. Results Alterations in TERF1 DNA were evaluated using datasets of primary tumor and castration-resistant tumors (CRPC) deposited in cBioportal. The expression of TERF1 mRNA levels was assessed utilizing TCGA datasets, clinical specimens, and metastatic prostate cancer cell lines (LNCaP, DU145, and PC3). Six percent of localized prostate cancer presents alterations in TERF1 (the majority of that was amplifications). In the CRPC cohort, 26% of samples had TERF1 amplification. Patients with TERF1 alterations had the worst overall survival only on localized cancer cohort (p = 0.0027). In the TCGA cohort, mRNA levels of TERF1 were downregulated in comparison with normal tissue (p = 0.0013) and upregulated in tumors that invade lymph nodes (p = 0.0059). The upregulation of TERF1 is also associated with worst overall survival (p = 0.0028) and disease-free survival (p = 0.0023). There is a positive correlation between TERF1 and androgen receptor expression in cancer tissue (r = 0.53, p < 0.00001) but not on normal tissue (r = − 0.16, p = 0.12). In the clinical specimens, there is no detectable expression of TERF1 and upregulation of miR-155 (p = 0.0348). In cell lines, TERF1 expression was higher in LNCaP and was progressively lower in DU145 and PC3 (p = 0.0327) with no differences in miR-155 expression. Conclusion Amplification/upregulation of TERF1 was associated with the worst prognostic in localized prostate cancer. Our results corroborate that miR-155 regulates TERF1 expression in prostate cancer. TERF1 has the potential to become a biomarker in prostate cancer.

scholarly journals Modeling and Analysis of Hormone and Mitogenic Signal Integration in Prostate Cancer

2016 ◽  
Author(s):  
Katharine V. Rogers ◽  
Joseph A. Wayman ◽  
Ryan Tasseff ◽  
Caitlin Gee ◽  
Matthew P. DeLisa ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Prostate Cancer ◽  
Cell Lines ◽  
Cancer Progression ◽  
Lncap Cell ◽  
Experimental Studies ◽  
The United States ◽  
Model Parameters ◽  
Mitogenic Signaling ◽  
Model Population ◽  
Androgen Ablation

AbstractProstate cancer is the most common cancer in men and the second leading cause of cancer related death in the United States. Androgens, such as testosterone, are required for androgen dependent prostate cancer (ADPC) growth. Androgen ablation in combination with radiation or chemotherapy remains the primary non-surgical treatment for ADPC. However, androgen ablation typically fails to permanently arrest cancer progression, often resulting in castration resistant prostate cancer (CRPC). In this study, we analyzed a population of mathematical models that described the integration of androgen and mitogenic signaling in androgen dependent and independent prostate cancer. An ensemble of model parameters was estimated from 43 studies of signaling in androgen dependent and resistant LNCaP cell lines. The model population was then validated by comparing simulations with an additional 33 data sets from LNCaP cell lines and clinical trials. Analysis of the model population suggested that simultaneously targeting the PI3K and MAPK pathways in addition to anti-androgen therapies could be an effective treatment for CRPC. We tested this hypothesis in both ADPC LNCaP cell lines and LNCaP derived CRPC C4-2 cells using three inhibitors: the androgen receptor inhibitor MDV3100 (enzalutamide), the Raf kinase inhibitor sorafenib, and the PI3K inhibitor LY294002. Consistent with model predictions, cell viability decreased at 72 hrs in the dual and triple inhibition cases in both the LNCaP and C4-2 cell lines, compared to treatment with any single inhibitor. Taken together, this study suggested that crosstalk between the androgen and mitogenic signaling axes led to robustness of CRPC to any single inhibitor. Model analysis predicted potentially efficacious target combinations which were confirmed by experimental studies in multiple cell lines, thereby illustrating the potentially important role that mathematical modeling can play in cancer.

scholarly journals Transcription Factor Homeobox D9 Drives the Malignant Phenotype of HPV18-Positive Cervical Cancer Cells via Binding to the Viral Early Promoter

Cancers ◽  
2021 ◽  
Vol 13 (18) ◽  
pp. 4613
Author(s):  
Shigenori Hayashi ◽  
Takashi Iwata ◽  
Ryotaro Imagawa ◽  
Masaki Sugawara ◽  
Guanliang Chen ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Cervical Cancer ◽  
Transcription Factor ◽  
Cell Lines ◽  
Target Genes ◽  
Tumor Development ◽  
Human Papillomaviruses ◽  
Mrna Levels ◽  
Protein Levels ◽  
Early Promoter ◽  
E6 And E7

Persistent infections with two types of human papillomaviruses (HPV), HPV16 and HPV18, are the most common cause of cervical cancer (CC). Two viral early genes, E6 and E7, are associated with tumor development, and expressions of E6 and E7 are primarily regulated by a single viral promoter: P97 in HPV16 and P105 in HPV18. We previously demonstrated that the homeobox D9 (HOXD9) transcription factor is responsible for the malignancy of HPV16-positive CC cell lines via binding to the P97 promoter. Here, we investigated whether HOXD9 is also involved in the regulation of the P105 promoter using two HPV18-positive CC cell lines, SKG-I and HeLa. Following the HOXD9 knockdown, cell viability was significantly reduced, and E6 expression was suppressed and was accompanied by increased protein levels of P53, while mRNA levels of TP53 did not change. E7 expression was also downregulated and, while mRNA levels of RB1 and E2F were unchanged, mRNA levels of E2F-target genes, MCM2 and PCNA, were decreased, which indicates that the HOXD9 knockdown downregulates E7 expression, thus leading to an inactivation of E2F and the cell-cycle arrest. Chromatin immunoprecipitation and promoter reporter assays confirmed that HOXD9 is directly associated with the P105 promoter. Collectively, our results reveal that HOXD9 drives the HPV18 early promoter activity to promote proliferation and immortalization of the CC cells.

scholarly journals CK2 Pro-Survival Role in Prostate Cancer Is Mediated via Maintenance and Promotion of Androgen Receptor and NFκB p65 Expression

2019 ◽  
Vol 12 (2) ◽  
pp. 89
Author(s):  
Janeen H. Trembley ◽  
Betsy T. Kren ◽  
Md. J. Abedin ◽  
Daniel P. Shaughnessy ◽  
Yingming Li ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Prostate Cancer ◽  
Androgen Receptor ◽  
Inhibitory Effect ◽  
Strongly Correlated ◽  
Protein Levels ◽  
Small Molecule Inhibition ◽  
Prostate Cells ◽  
Cell Death Response ◽  
Stress Signals ◽  
Castrate Resistant

The prosurvival protein kinase CK2, androgen receptor (AR), and nuclear factor kappa B (NFκB) interact in the function of prostate cells, and there is evidence of crosstalk between these signals in the pathobiology of prostate cancer (PCa). As CK2 is elevated in PCa, and AR and NFκB are involved in the development and progression of prostate cancer, we investigated their interaction in benign and malignant prostate cells in the presence of altered CK2 expression. Our results show that elevation of CK2 levels caused increased levels of AR and NFκB p65 in prostate cells of different phenotypes. Analysis of TCGA PCa data indicated that AR and CK2α RNA expression are strongly correlated. Small molecule inhibition or molecular down-regulation of CK2 caused reduction in AR mRNA expression and protein levels in PCa cells and in orthotopic xenograft tumors by various pathways. Among these, regulation of AR protein stability plays a unifying role in CK2 maintenance of AR protein levels. Our results show induction of various endoplasmic reticulum stress signals after CK2 inhibition, which may play a role in the PCa cell death response. Of note, CK2 inhibition caused loss of cell viability in both parental and enzalutamide-resistant castrate-resistant PCa cells. The present work elucidates the specific link of CK2 to the pathogenesis of PCa in association with AR and NFκB expression; further, the observation that inhibition of CK2 can exert a growth inhibitory effect on therapy-resistant PCa cells emphasizes the potential utility of CK2 inhibition in patients who are on enzalutamide treatment for advanced cancer.

scholarly journals TRIM27 interacts with Iκbα to promote the growth of human renal cancer cells through regulating the NF-κB pathway

BMC Cancer ◽  
2021 ◽  
Vol 21 (1) ◽  
Author(s):  
Chengwu Xiao ◽  
Wei Zhang ◽  
Meimian Hua ◽  
Huan Chen ◽  
Bin Yang ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Cell Lines ◽  
Prognostic Indicator ◽  
The Cancer Genome Atlas ◽  
Mrna Levels ◽  
Loss Of Function ◽  
Protein Levels ◽  
Kaplan Meier ◽  
Cancer Genome Atlas

Abstract Background The tripartite motif (TRIM) family proteins exhibit oncogenic roles in various cancers. The roles of TRIM27, a member of the TRIM super family, in renal cell carcinoma (RCC) remained unexplored. In the current study, we aimed to investigate the clinical impact and roles of TRIM27 in the development of RCC. Methods The mRNA levels of TRIM27 and Kaplan–Meier survival of RCC were analyzed from The Cancer Genome Atlas database. Real-time PCR and Western blotting were used to measure the mRNA and protein levels of TRIM27 both in vivo and in vitro. siRNA and TRIM27 were exogenously overexpressed in RCC cell lines to manipulate TRIM27 expression. Results We discovered that TRIM27 was elevated in RCC patients, and the expression of TRIM27 was closely correlated with poor prognosis. The loss of function and gain of function results illustrated that TRIM27 promotes cell proliferation and inhibits apoptosis in RCC cell lines. Furthermore, TRIM27 expression was positively associated with NF-κB expression in patients with RCC. Blocking the activity of NF-κB attenuated the TRIM27-mediated enhancement of proliferation and inhibition of apoptosis. TRIM27 directly interacted with Iκbα, an inhibitor of NF-κB, to promote its ubiquitination, and the inhibitory effects of TRIM27 on Iκbα led to NF-κB activation. Conclusions Our results suggest that TRIM27 exhibits an oncogenic role in RCC by regulating NF-κB signaling. TRIM27 serves as a specific prognostic indicator for RCC, and strategies targeting the suppression of TRIM27 function may shed light on future therapeutic approaches.

scholarly journals HERV-K Gag RNA and Protein Levels Are Elevated in Malignant Regions of the Prostate in Males with Prostate Cancer

Viruses ◽  
2021 ◽  
Vol 13 (3) ◽  
pp. 449
Author(s):  
Simin D. Rezaei ◽  
Joshua A. Hayward ◽  
Sam Norden ◽  
John Pedersen ◽  
John Mills ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Prostate Cancer ◽  
Cell Lines ◽  
Endogenous Retrovirus ◽  
Human Endogenous Retrovirus ◽  
Normal Prostate ◽  
Tissue Samples ◽  
Gag Protein ◽  
Protein Levels ◽  
Prostate Epithelial Cells ◽  
Prostate Cancers

Heightened expression of human endogenous retrovirus (HERV) sequences has been associated with a range of malignancies, including prostate cancer, suggesting that they may serve as useful diagnostic or prognostic cancer biomarkers. We analysed the expression of HERV-K (Gag and Env/Np9 regions), HERV-E 4.1 (Pol and Env regions), HERV-H (Pol) and HERV-W (Gag) sequences in prostate cancer cells lines and normal prostate epithelial cells using qRT-PCR. HERV expression was also analysed in matched malignant and benign prostate tissue samples from men with prostate cancer (n = 27, median age 65.2 years (range 47–70)) and compared to prostate cancer-free male controls (n = 11). Prostate cancer epithelial cell lines exhibited a signature of HERV RNA overexpression, with all HERVs analysed, except HERV-E Pol, showing heightened expression in at least two, but more commonly all, cell lines analysed. Analysis of primary prostate material indicated increased expression of HERV-E Pol but decreased expression of HERV-E Env in both malignant and benign regions of the prostate in men with prostate cancer as compared to those without. Expression of HERV-K Gag was significantly higher in malignant regions of the prostate in men with prostate cancer as compared to matched benign regions and prostate cancer-free men (p < 0.001 for both), with 85.2% of prostate cancers donors showing malignancy-associated upregulation of HERV-K Gag RNA. HERV-K Gag protein was detected in 12/18 (66.7%) malignant tissues using immunohistochemistry, but only 1/18 (5.6%) benign tissue sections. Heightened expression of HERV-K Gag RNA and protein appears to be a sensitive and specific biomarker of prostate malignancy in this cohort of men with prostate carcinoma, supporting its potential utility as a non-invasive, adjunct clinical biomarker.

scholarly journals YB-1 Is Altered in Pregnancy-Associated Disorders and Affects Trophoblast in Vitro Properties via Alternation of Multiple Molecular Traits

2021 ◽  
Vol 22 (13) ◽  
pp. 7226
Author(s):  
Violeta Stojanovska ◽  
Aneri Shah ◽  
Katja Woidacki ◽  
Florence Fischer ◽  
Mario Bauer ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Cell Lines ◽  
Cancer Progression ◽  
Cell Function ◽  
Trophoblast Cell ◽  
Mrna Levels ◽  
Trophoblast Cells ◽  
Invasion And Migration ◽  
And Migration ◽  
Apoptosis And Inflammation

Cold shock Y-box binding protein-1 (YB-1) coordinates several molecular processes between the nucleus and the cytoplasm and plays a crucial role in cell function. Moreover, it is involved in cancer progression, invasion, and metastasis. As trophoblast cells share similar characteristics with cancer cells, we hypothesized that YB-1 might also be necessary for trophoblast functionality. In samples of patients with intrauterine growth restriction, YB-1 mRNA levels were decreased, while they were increased in preeclampsia and unchanged in spontaneous abortions when compared to normal pregnant controls. Studies with overexpression and downregulation of YB-1 were performed to assess the key trophoblast processes in two trophoblast cell lines HTR8/SVneo and JEG3. Overexpression of YB-1 or exposure of trophoblast cells to recombinant YB-1 caused enhanced proliferation, while knockdown of YB-1 lead to proliferative disadvantage in JEG3 or HTR8/SVneo cells. The invasion and migration properties were affected at different degrees among the trophoblast cell lines. Trophoblast expression of genes mediating migration, invasion, apoptosis, and inflammation was altered upon YB-1 downregulation. Moreover, IL-6 secretion was excessively increased in HTR8/SVneo. Ultimately, YB-1 directly binds to NF-κB enhancer mark in HTR8/SVneo cells. Our data show that YB-1 protein is important for trophoblast cell functioning and, when downregulated, leads to trophoblast disadvantage that at least in part is mediated by NF-κB.

scholarly journals IL6 sensitizes prostate cancer to the antiproliferative effect of IFNα2 through IRF9

2013 ◽  
Vol 20 (5) ◽  
pp. 677-689 ◽  
Author(s):  
Holger H H Erb ◽  
Regina V Langlechner ◽  
Patrizia L Moser ◽  
Florian Handle ◽  
Tineke Casneuf ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Prostate Cancer ◽  
Cell Lines ◽  
Cellular Proliferation ◽  
Tissue Expression ◽  
Type I ◽  
Regulatory Factor ◽  
Quantitative Real Time Pcr ◽  
Antiproliferative Effects ◽  
Protein Levels

Development and progression of prostate cancer (PCa) are associated with chronic inflammation. The cytokine interleukin 6 (IL6) can influence progression, differentiation, survival, and angiogenesis of PCa. To identify novel pathways that are triggered by IL6, we performed a gene expression profiling of two PCa cell lines, LNCaP and MDA PCa 2b, treated with 5 ng/ml IL6. Interferon (IFN) regulatory factor 9 (IRF9) was identified as one of the most prevalent IL6-regulated genes in both cell lines. IRF9 is a mediator of type I IFN signaling and acts together with STAT1 and 2 to activate transcription of IFN-responsive genes. The IL6 regulation of IRF9 was confirmed at mRNA and protein levels by quantitative real-time PCR and western blot respectively in both cell lines and could be blocked by the anti-IL6 antibody Siltuximab. Three PCa cell lines, PC3, Du-145, and LNCaP-IL6+, with an autocrine IL6 loop displayed high expression of IRF9. A tissue microarray with 36 PCa tissues showed that IRF9 protein expression is moderately elevated in malignant areas and positively correlates with the tissue expression of IL6. Downregulation and overexpression of IRF9 provided evidence for an IFN-independent role of IRF9 in cellular proliferation of different PCa cell lines. Furthermore, expression of IRF9 was essential to mediate the antiproliferative effects of IFNα2. We concluded that IL6 is an inducer of IRF9 expression in PCa and a sensitizer for the antiproliferative effects of IFNα2.

scholarly journals Birdsong Decreases Protein Levels of FoxP2, a Molecule Required for Human Speech

2008 ◽  
Vol 100 (4) ◽  
pp. 2015-2025 ◽  
Author(s):  
Julie E. Miller ◽  
Elizabeth Spiteri ◽  
Michael C. Condro ◽  
Ryan T. Dosumu-Johnson ◽  
Daniel H. Geschwind ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Mrna Expression ◽  
Target Genes ◽  
Expression Patterns ◽  
Vocal Learning ◽  
Brain Regions ◽  
Motor Deficits ◽  
Mrna Levels ◽  
Adult Males ◽  
Protein Levels ◽  
Area X

Cognitive and motor deficits associated with language and speech are seen in humans harboring FOXP2 mutations. The neural bases for FOXP2 mutation-related deficits are thought to reside in structural abnormalities distributed across systems important for language and motor learning including the cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, and cerebellum. In these brain regions, our prior research showed that FoxP2 mRNA expression patterns are strikingly similar between developing humans and songbirds. Within the songbird brain, this pattern persists throughout life and includes the striatal subregion, Area X, that is dedicated to song development and maintenance. The persistent mRNA expression suggests a role for FoxP2 that extends beyond the formation of vocal learning circuits to their ongoing use. Because FoxP2 is a transcription factor, a role in shaping circuits likely depends on FoxP2 protein levels which might not always parallel mRNA levels. Indeed our current study shows that FoxP2 protein, like its mRNA, is acutely downregulated in mature Area X when adult males sing with some differences. Total corticosterone levels associated with the different behavioral contexts did not vary, indicating that differences in FoxP2 levels are not likely attributable to stress. Our data, together with recent reports on FoxP2's target genes, suggest that lowered FoxP2 levels may allow for expression of genes important for circuit modification and thus vocal variability.

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