scholarly journals WATER AVAILABILITY IN A PLANOSOL UNDER INTEGRATED CROP-LIVESTOCK-FORESTRY SYSTEM IN THE AGRESTE REGION OF PARAIBA, BRAZIL

2019 ◽  
Vol 32 (2) ◽  
pp. 449-457
Author(s):  
PEDRO LUAN FERREIRA DA SILVA ◽  
FLÁVIO PEREIRA DE OLIVEIRA ◽  
DANILLO DUTRA TAVARES ◽  
CAMILA COSTA DA NÓBREGA ◽  
ANDRÉ JULIO DO AMARAL
Keyword(s):  
Water Availability ◽  
Production Systems ◽  
Agricultural Research ◽  
Aggregate Stability ◽  
Stability Index ◽  
Total Porosity ◽  
Field Capacity ◽  
Gliricidia Sepium ◽  
Brachiaria Decumbens ◽  
Research Company

ABSTRACT Integrated agricultural production systems, involving agriculture, livestock, and forest are strategies that improve soil quality. The objective of this work was to evaluate the effect of the integrated crop-livestock-forest system (ICLF) on water availability of a Planosol in the Agreste region of the state of Paraíba (PB), Brazil. The experiment was conducted at the experimental site of the Agricultural Research Company of Paraíba (EMEPA), in Alagoinha, PB. The soil evaluated was a Eutric Planosol, with a moderate A horizon. The following intercrops (treatments) were implemented in June 2015: I. Gliricidia sepium + Brachiaria decumbens; II. Mimosa caesalpiniifolia + Brachiaria decumbens; III. Tabebuia alba + Brachiaria decumbens; IV. Zea mays + Brachiaria decumbens; and V. Brachiaria decumbens. A randomized block experimental design was used, with five treatments. The analyzed variables were field capacity, permanent wilting point, soil available water, granulometry, degree of flocculation, total porosity, macroporosity, microporosity, saturated hydraulic conductivity, resistance to penetration, and aggregate stability index. The results showed that the water availability in the ICLF implemented in the Agreste region of Paraíba had no significant variation after three years. After the three-year period, the ICLF promoted no significant physical improvement in the attributes of the evaluated Planosol.

scholarly journals The Influence of Oxisol Physics Parameters on Dry Matter Production in Grasses of Brachiaria Genus

2020 ◽  
Vol 8 (2) ◽  
pp. 265
Author(s):  
Pedro Luan Ferreira da Silva ◽  
Flávio Pereira de Oliveira ◽  
Walter Esfrain Pereira ◽  
Adriana Ferreira Martins ◽  
Camila Costa da Nóbrega ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Dry Matter ◽  
Aggregate Stability ◽  
Stability Index ◽  
Total Porosity ◽  
Field Capacity ◽  
Dry Matter Production ◽  
Brachiaria Brizantha ◽  
Available Water Content ◽  
Experimental Area ◽  
Matter Production

The aim of this study was to assess the correlation between physical attributes of a Yellow Oxisol and the shoot dry matter production in grasses from the Brachiaria genus in the Brejo region, in Paraíba. The experiment has been conducted since 2005 in an experimental area of the Center of Agricultural Sciences of the Federal University of Paraíba, Areia-PB (6°58’12’’ S; 35°41’15’’ W and 573 m altitude). The experimental design adopted was that of randomized complete blocks (RCB) with 4 treatments and 4 replications. T1- Brachiaria decumbens Stapf.; T2- Brachiaria brizantha (Hochst) Stapf.; T3- Brachiaria humidicola (Rendle) Schwnickerdt Vr.; T4- Brachiaria brizantha MG5 cv. Vitória. The soil in the experimental area was characterized as Dystrophic Yellow Oxisol with clay-sandy texture. Soil samples with disturbed and undisturbed structure were collected within the 0.0-0.10 m layer. The shoot dry matter of grasses was collected in october of 2018. The analyzed variables were: bulk density (BD), compaction degree (CD), total porosity (TP), macroporosity (Ma), microporosity (Mi), field capacity (θFC), permanent wilting point (θPWP), available water content (θAWC), soil aeration capacity (SAC), mean weighted diameter of wet and dry aggregates (Wet and Dry MWD), aggregate stability index (ASI) and saturated hydraulic conductivity (Kθ). The Student’s t-test and Pearson's correlation analysis (p <0.05) were performed. It was concluded that dry matter production was positively influenced by θFC and θPWP. And the increase of the average values of BD, CD, Wet and Dry MWD favored the increase of shoot dry matter production by grasses.

Fertility, carbon stock and aggregate stability of an Alfisol under integrated farming systems

2021 ◽  
Vol 51 ◽  
Author(s):  
Pedro Luan Ferreira da Silva ◽  
Flávio Pereira de Oliveira ◽  
Adriana Ferreira Martins ◽  
Danillo Dutra Tavares ◽  
André Julio do Amaral
Keyword(s):  
Carbon Stock ◽  
Organic Matter Content ◽  
Aggregate Stability ◽  
Stability Index ◽  
Farming Systems ◽  
Gliricidia Sepium ◽  
Matter Content ◽  
Semiarid Region ◽  
Integrated Farming ◽  
Integrated Farming Systems

ABSTRACT Integrated farming systems are promising strategies for the recovery of pastures and degraded soils. This study aimed to evaluate the effect of integrated farming systems arrangements, after four years of implementation, on the fertility, carbon stock and aggregate stability of an Alfisol, in the semiarid region of the Paraíba state, Brazil. A randomized block experimental design was used, with 5 treatments and 4 replications: Brachiaria decumbens; B. decumbens + Tabebuia impetiginous; B. decumbens + Gliricidia sepium; B. decumbens + Mimosa caesalpiniifolia; and B. decumbens + maize. The soil chemical attributes, fertility, carbon stock and structural and aggregate stability were evaluated in the 0.00-0.10, 0.10-0.20 and 0.20-0.30 m layers. The B. decumbens + maize system presented an organic matter content 11.93 % higher than B. decumbens, and was higher than the other systems evaluated. Concerning the carbon stock in the 0.00-0.10 m layer, in B. decumbens the uptake was 2.66 Mg ha-1 higher than that of the B. decumbens + maize system and, on average, 4.69 Mg ha-1 higher than for the systems with the arboreal component. In the medium-term, B. decumbens is more efficient in adding carbon to the soil. The soil structural stability, aggregate stability index and fertility were not affected by the different arrangements after four years of implementation.

scholarly journals Role of Gliricidia sepium in Improving Aggregate Stability of Ultisol Limau Manis Padang: A LABoratory study

Jurnal Solum ◽  
2012 ◽  
Vol 9 (1) ◽  
pp. 44
Author(s):  
Yulnafatmawita Yulnafatmawita ◽  
Asmar Asmar ◽  
Vitria Purnamasari
Keyword(s):  
Organic Matter Content ◽  
Aggregate Stability ◽  
Stability Index ◽  
Gliricidia Sepium ◽  
Soil Aggregate ◽  
Matter Content ◽  
Soil Aggregate Stability ◽  
Top Soil ◽  
The Stability

There is no much public concern about soil aggregate stability improvement of a soil.  This is due to the fact that it does not directly affect crop yield for a short term, but it determines sustainable agriculture and development for a long term.  This research was aimed to investigate soil physical properties especially soil aggregate stability of Ultisols after fresh OM application, then to determine the exact OM dosage to improve the stability.  Ultisols used was from Limau Manis (± 367 m asl), an area in lower footslope of Mount Gadut, having wet tropical rainforest. Due to land use change, farming activities in that sloping area could enhance erosion process in the environment.  Therefore, efforts to anticipate the erosion must be found.  Fresh OM applied was Gliricidia sepium which was found plenty in the area.  Five levels of fresh Gliricidia sepium, were 0, 5, 10, 15, and 20 t/ha.  Top soil (0-20 cm depth) was mixed with OM, then incubated for 3 months in glasshouse.  The results after a 3-month incubation showed that SOM content did not statistically increase, but it improved based on the criteria, from very low to low level as OM was applied for ≥ 10 t/ha. It seemed that 10 t/ha Gliricidia sepium was the best dosage at this condition. There was a positive correlation between SOM content and aggregate stability index of Ultisols after fresh Gliricidia sepium addition.Keywords: Ultisols, soil aggregate stability, soil organic matter content

scholarly journals Kajian kedalaman Penggunaan Bajak Singkal Terhadap Perubahan Sifat Fisika-Mekanika, Kapasitas Lapang dan Kebutuhan Bahan Bakar

2019 ◽  
Vol 4 (1) ◽  
pp. 608-617
Author(s):  
Dea Nizatillah ◽  
Ramayanty Bulan ◽  
Yuswar Yunus
Keyword(s):  
Mechanical Properties ◽  
Fuel Consumption ◽  
Block Design ◽  
Aggregate Stability ◽  
Total Porosity ◽  
Field Capacity ◽  
Strong Relationship ◽  
Penetration Resistance ◽  
Crop Productivity ◽  
Soil Penetration Resistance

Abstrak: Pengolahan tanah dengan traktor menyebabkan terjadinya pemadatan tanah yang pada akhirnya mempengaruhi produktivitas tanaman. Tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah untuk mengetahui bagaimana pengaruh kedalaman penggunaan bajak singkal terhadap sifat fisika-mekanika tanah, kapasitas lapang dan konsumsi bahan bakar. Metode yang digunakan pada penelitian ini adalah metode eksperimen dengan menggunakan rancangan acak kelompok (RAK) non faktorial. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa kedalaman penggunaan singkal dan kecepatan kerja berpengaruh nyata terhadap bobot isi, porositas, pF 2.0, permeabilitas dan stabilitas agregat, akan tetapi perlakuan kedalaman penggunaan singkal tidak berpengaruh nyata terhadap pF 2,54 dan tahanan penetrasi tanah. Kapasitas lapang memberi pengaruh terhadap konsumsi bahan bakar. Efisiensi lapang terbaik terdapat pada pengolahan tanah dengan kedalaman pembajakan 20 cm, yaitu 81,33 %. Konsumsi bahan bakar paling irit untuk pembajakan tanah adalah menggunakan kedalaman pembajakan tanah 20 cm, yaitu sebesar 2,83 L/Jam. Terdapat hubungan antara kedalaman penggunaan bajak singkal dengan perubahan sifat fisika-mekanika tanah dan kapasitas lapang serta kebutuhan bahan bakar. Bobot isi tanah, kadar air pada pF 2.0 dan pF 2,54 pada setiap kedalaman pembajakan tanah memiliki hubungan yang sangat lemah terhadap kebutuhan bahan bakar. Porositas total, permeabilitas, stabilitas agregat dan ketahanan penetrasi tanah pada setiap kedalaman pembajakan tanah memiliki hubungan yang sedang terhadap kebutuhan bahan bakar. Sedangkan perlakuan kedalaman pembajakan tanah dengan kapasitas lapang memiliki hubungan yang sangat kuat terhadap konsumsi bahan bakarDepth study of the use of a pirate against changes in physical-mechanical properties, field capacity and fuel requirementsAbstract. Soil plowing with tractors causes soil compaction which ultimately affects crop productivity. The purpose of this study was to find out how the plowing depth of use of pirate plows on soil physical-mechanical properties, field capacity and fuel consumption. The method used in this study is an experimental method using a non factorial randomized block design (RBD). The results showed that the depth of use of the screen and work speed significantly affected the weight of the content, porosity, pF 2.0, permeability and aggregate stability, but the treatment of the depth of use of the cassava had no significant effect on pF 2.54 and soil penetration resistance. Field capacity influences fuel consumption. The best field efficiency is found in tillage with a depth of 20 cm piracy, which is 81.33%. The most economical fuel consumption for land hijacking is using a 20 cm soil plowing depth, which is 2.83 L / Hour. There is a relationship between the depth of use of a plow with changes in physical-mechanical properties of the soil and field capacity and fuel requirements. The weight of the soil, the water content at pF 2.0 and pF 2.54 at each depth of land piracy has a very weak relationship with fuel requirements. Total porosity, permeability, aggregate stability and soil penetration resistance at every depth of soil piracy have a moderate relationship to fuel requirements. While the treatment of the depth of land piracy with field capacity has a very strong relationship to fuel consumption.

scholarly journals Using Selected Structural Indices to Pinpoint the Field Moisture Capacity of Some Coarse-Textured Agricultural Soils in Southeastern Nigeria

2013 ◽  
Vol 16 (2) ◽  
pp. 151-159
Author(s):  
Charles Arizechukwu Igwe ◽  
. Hermansah ◽  
Martin Eze Obi ◽  
Toshiyuki Wakatsuki
Keyword(s):  
Structural Stability ◽  
Agricultural Soils ◽  
Stability Index ◽  
Total Porosity ◽  
Field Capacity ◽  
Retention Data ◽  
Structure Development ◽  
Moisture Capacity ◽  
Southeastern Nigeria ◽  
Mineral Soils

Over- or underestimation of field capacity (FC) of agricultural soils could misguide soil and water management and this might have negative agronomic and environmental impacts. The study sought to identify the moisture tension for reliably estimating in the laboratory the FC of some sandy soils with low-activity clay minerals and at different levels of structure development in Nsukka agroecological zone in southeastern Nigeria. Fifty-four samples of topand subsoils under contrasting vegetation cover at three locations in the zone were analyzed for texture, organicmatter contents, bulk density and total porosity. Saturated hydraulic conductivities (Ksat) of the samples were equallydetermined. Water-conducting and water-filled porosities at each of 0.06-, 0.10- and 0.33-bar tensions were implied from water retention data at the respective tensions. The soils were categorized based on their levels of structure development using a structural stability index [(organic matter: silt+clay) %] as follows: very low (< 4%), low (4-7.5%) and moderate to high (> 7.5%) stability soils. Series of simple correlation tests were run among the waterconducting porosities at the various tensions and the Ksat of the soils. In each case, the soil was assumed to have attained FC at that moisture tension which the associated water-conducting porosity showed significant positive correlation with the Ksat. Our results revealed that the 0.06-bar tension overestimated the FC of the soils. The 0.10-bar tension, the commonly used moisture tension for the purpose in the study area, proved suitable only for soils within the moderate to high structural stability category. From all indications, the 0.33-bar tension best corresponded to the FC of the less structurally developed soils in the other two categories. The level of soil structure development should therefore be considered before deciding the suitable moisture tension for the determination of FC of these and similar soils in other tropical locations.Keywords: Coarse mineral soils, field moisture capacity, saturated hydraulic conductivity, structural stability,water-conducting pores

scholarly journals Fresh Organic Matter Application to Improve Aggregate Stability of Ultisols under Wet Tropical Region

2013 ◽  
Vol 18 (1) ◽  
pp. 33 ◽  
Author(s):  
. Yulnafatmawita ◽  
Febrian Anggriani
Keyword(s):  
Organic Matter ◽  
Aggregate Stability ◽  
Stability Index ◽  
Gliricidia Sepium ◽  
Tropical Region ◽  
Soil Aggregate Stability ◽  
Fresh Organic Matter ◽  
Randomized Design ◽  
Completely Randomized Design ◽  
Marginal Soil

Ultisol as a marginal soil has become ‘a hope’ by farmers in Indonesia due to land use change, lately. However, the soil is susceptible to degradation since it has low soil aggregate stability (SAS) as affected by low soil organic matter (SOM) content. A pot trial about application of fresh organic matter (FOM) was aimed to improve SAS of Ultisols under wet tropical rainforest. Three types of FOM (Tithonia diversifolia, Chromolaena odorata, and Gliricidia sepium) at different size (8, 6, 4, 2, and 0.5 cm) were applied for 1% (20 g 2 kg-1 soil), then mixed and incubated for three months. The experimental units were allocated in a completely randomized design at a glasshouse. The results showed that FOM generally increased SOM content, percent aggregation, as well as SAS of the Ultisol. Among the organic matter (OM) sources, tithonia gave the highest SOM content after a 3-month incubation. Within the types of OM source, the smallest OM size applied showed the highest SOM content. Tithonia at 0.5 cm in size gave the highest SOM (3.47%) of the Ultisol and SAS increased by 68% compared to the initial soil. Overall, there was a positive correlation (R2 = 0.43) between SOM content and aggregate stability index, but no correlation (R2=0.04) between SOM content and percent aggregation of the Ultisols.[How to Cite : Yulnafatmawita and F Anggriani. 2013. Fresh Organic Matter Application to Improve Aggregate Stability of Ultisols under Wet Tropical Region. J Trop Soils 18 (1): 33-44. doi: 10.5400/jts.2013.18.1.33][Permalink/DOI: www.dx.doi.org/10.5400/jts.2013.18.1.33]  

scholarly journals Physical assessment of a Mollisol under agroecological managements at Quillota valley. Mediterranean Central Chile

2020 ◽  
Vol 47 (3) ◽  
pp. 261-279
Author(s):  
Manuel Casanova ◽  
Berthin Ticona ◽  
Osvaldo Salazar ◽  
Eduardo Gratacós ◽  
Marco Pfeiffer ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Physical Properties ◽  
Soil Quality ◽  
Management Practices ◽  
Stability Index ◽  
Total Porosity ◽  
Field Capacity ◽  
Conventional Tillage ◽  
Soil Physical Properties ◽  
No Tillage ◽  
Central Chile

A number of agroecological practices have been proposed for assessing soil quality. Several physical soil properties have been shown to be important for determining soil quality by using the sustainability index (SI) and the cumulative rating approach. The main aim of the study was to determine the effects of different agroecological managements on the physical properties of a Mollisol in the Mediterranean central Chile. In addition, some physical properties were selected to compare the soil quality among different agroecological management practices and highly mechanized intensive systems by using the SI and cumulative rating approaches. An experimental field was defined in an area of 3.5 ha in 2014. Four sites with different agroecological practices were selected in 2019 to assess soil physical properties: rainfed Mediterranean annual prairie - no tillage (1-S), irrigated perennial prairie with deep-root species - no tillage (2-N), irrigated annual and perennial prairie - conventional tillage (4-S), irrigated vegetables and flowers - minimum tillage (4-N); an avocado orchard with traditional management was used as the control. Soil organic carbon and the following soil physical properties were selected to assess SI and CR: bulk density, total porosity, void ratio, air capacity, fast-drainage pores, relative field capacity, hydraulic conductivity, structural stability index and unavailable water pores. The applicability of the selected physical indicators to the SIs of agroecological management practices compared with the control was demonstrated. The cumulative rating index (CR) for each land use showed that all agroecological practices constituted sustainable soil management (25≤CR<30), whereas the avocado orchard showed the least sustainable management (30≤CR<40), and a change in soil use is recommended.

scholarly journals Assessment of Soil Physical Characteristics of Luvisols Under Monoculture of Vines

2016 ◽  
Vol 19 (1) ◽  
pp. 21-27
Author(s):  
Vladimír Šimanský ◽  
Marek Kolenčík
Keyword(s):  
Soil Profile ◽  
Soil Structure ◽  
Aggregate Stability ◽  
Stability Index ◽  
Total Porosity ◽  
Soil Samples ◽  
Soil Profiles ◽  
Average Content ◽  
Average Value ◽  
Soil Physical Characteristics

Abstract The physical properties of Luvisols under vineyards of the Nitra wine-growing area (Slovakia) were evaluated in the paper. Soil samples were taken from two selected localities (Nitra - Dražovce, Vráble). The obtained results showed that in the soil profile of Dražovce, the average contents of non-capillary pores, capillary pores and semi-capillary pores to the total porosity were equal to 26.1, 64.4 and 9.4%, respectively, and in the soil profile of Vráble - 22.3, 75.6 and 2.1%, respectively. In the Dražovce locality, the average content of aggregate stability index (Sw) decreased in the following order: abandoned vineyard > grassy strip between the vineyard rows > intensively cultivated rows of vineyard. In contrast, in the Vráble locality, higher average contents of Sw were determined in intensively cultivated rows of vineyard in comparison to grassy strip between the vineyard rows. The lowest average value of vulnerability coefficient (Kv) was observed in abandoned vineyard (Dražovce locality) and in both localities in grassy strip between the vineyard rows. Intensive cultivation of the vineyard rows resulted in higher vulnerability of soil structure. The values of maximum capillary capacity were almost the same in both soil profiles of Luvisols. A higher content of soil moisture was observed in the soil profile in the Vráble locality (33.6±2.50) in comparison to the Dražovce locality (30.6±5.44). Higher content of storage moisture was determined in the Vráble locality (2,684 l m-2) in comparison to the Dražovce locality (2,450 l m-2).

scholarly journals Effect of Zeolite and Mineral Fertilizers on Some Soil Properties and Growth of Jew's Mallow in Clayey and Sandy Soils

2019 ◽  
pp. 1-12
Author(s):  
T. H. H. Khalifa ◽  
M. S. Elsaka ◽  
M. A. Shabana ◽  
H. M. Abo-Elsoud
Keyword(s):  
Soil Properties ◽  
Soil Nutrients ◽  
Field Experiments ◽  
Clayey Soil ◽  
Agricultural Research ◽  
Sandy Soils ◽  
Total Porosity ◽  
Field Capacity ◽  
Mineral Fertilizers ◽  
Research Station

Aims: To evaluate the effect of zeolite and mineral fertilizers on some soil properties, availability of soil nutrients and yield of Jew’s mallow (Corchorus olitorius) in clayey and sandy soils. Study Design: The experimental designed as split plot design with three replicates, the main plots were devoted to zeolite at the rates of 0, 4.76 and 9.52 Mg ha-1 and the sub plots were occupied by mineral fertilizers at the rates of 50% and 100% from the recommended NPK doses. Place and Duration of Study: During spring and summer seasons of 2018, the field experiments were conducted in Sakha Agricultural Research Station Farm (clayey soil) and private farm at Baltium district (sandy soil). Methodology: Jew’s mallow grains (Alexandria variety). Soil samples were collected at (0-30 cm depth) in the initial of experiment and after harvesting with the aid of soil auger at random from different parts of the experimental sites to determine the physicochemical and soil moisture characteristics of the soil. Growth characteristics (plant height and fresh mass weight) were studied. Results: The results showed that ECe, SAR and bulk density values were decreased, while CEC, total porosity, field capacity, permanent wilting point and available water values increased due to application of 9.52 Mg zeolites ha-1 when compared to untreated soil. The maximum stem height and total fresh yield of Jew’s mallow were recorded with the application of 9.52 Mg zeolite ha-1+100% NPK. Conclusion: It could be concluded that the use of zeolite in clayey and sandy soils improved the soil properties, improved the availability of soil nutrients and consequently decreased the environmental pollution. Also, the obtained results are promising for enhancing the horizontal and/or vertical expansion of agriculture in such problematic soils.

scholarly journals Physical Quality Indicators of an Oxisol Under Grass in the Agreste Region of Paraiba, Brazil

2019 ◽  
Vol 11 (15) ◽  
pp. 65
Author(s):  
Pedro Luan F. da Silva ◽  
Flávio P. de Oliveira ◽  
Camila C. da Nóbrega ◽  
Adriana F. Martins ◽  
Walter E. Pereira ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Aggregate Stability ◽  
Principal Component ◽  
Stability Index ◽  
Field Capacity ◽  
Component Analysis ◽  
Brachiaria Brizantha ◽  
Soil Aeration ◽  
Available Water Content ◽  
Brachiaria Ruziziensis ◽  
Aeration Capacity

The aim of this study was to evaluate the influence of different grass cultivars on physical attributes of an Oxisol in the Agreste region of Para&iacute;ba. The experiment was set up in 2005 in experimental areas of the Center of Agricultural Sciences of the Federal University of Para&iacute;ba, Areia-PB. The experimental design adopted was that of randomized complete blocks (RCB) with 5 treatments and 4 replications, in experimental plots of 50 m2. The treatments were the following: I. Brachiaria decumbens Stapf., II. Brachiaria brizantha, III. Brachiaria humidicola (Rendle) Schweickvr., IV. Brachiaria brizantha cv. MG5-Vit&oacute;ria and V. Brachiaria ruziziensis. In October 2018 samples of soil with disturbed and undisturbed structure were collected at the center of each experimental plot in the depth of 0.0-0.10 m for the determination of the following variables: soil porosity (total, macro and micro), bulk density, compaction degree, saturated hydraulic conductivity, field capacity, permanent wilting point, available water content, soil aeration capacity, clay dispersed in water, flocculation degree and aggregate stability index. The analysis of variance was performed and the means were compared by Tukey&rsquo;s tests, principal component analysis and Pearson&rsquo;s correlation analysis (p &lt; 0.05). It is concluded that after the 13-year period, Brachiaria brizantha promoted improvements to the field capacity of the Oxisol. The other attributes were not physically altered. Main component analysis showed that the correlation values were more significant for the Brachiaria brizantha component. Pearson&rsquo;s correlation was significant between field capacity and soil aeration capacity.

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