scholarly journals East India Company Strategies in the Development of Singapore

2021 ◽  
Vol 2 (3) ◽  
pp. p37
Author(s):  
Aniba Israt Ara ◽  
Arshad Islam
Keyword(s):  
18Th Century ◽  
Cultural Knowledge ◽  
East India Company ◽  
Malay Peninsula ◽  
Natural Region ◽  
China Trade ◽  
The Social ◽  
British East India Company ◽  
Literature History

Singapore in the Malay Peninsula was targeted by the British East India Company (EIC) to be the epicentre of their direct rule in Southeast Asia. Seeking new sources of revenue at the end of the 18th century, after attaining domination in India, the Company sought to extend its reach into China, and Malaya was the natural region to do this, extending outposts to Penang and Singapore. The latter was first identified as a key site by Stamford Raffles. The EIC Governor General Marquess Hastings (r. 1813-1823) planned to facilitate Raffle’s attention on the Malay Peninsula from Sumatra. Raffles’ plan for Singapore was approved by the EIC’s Bengal Government. The modern system of administration came into the Straits Settlements under the EIC’s Bengal Presidency. In 1819 in Singapore, Raffles established an Anglo-Oriental College (AOC) for the study of Eastern languages, literature, history, and science. The AOC was intended firstly to be the centre of local research and secondly to increase inter-cultural knowledge of the East and West. Besides Raffles’ efforts, the EIC developed political and socio-economic systems for Singapore. The most important aspects of the social development of Singapore were proper accommodation for migrants, poverty eradication, health care, a new system of education, and women’s rights. The free trade introduced by Francis Light (and later Stamford Raffles) in Penang and Singapore respectively gave enormous opportunities for approved merchants to expand their commerce from Burma to Australia and from Java to China. Before the termination of the China trade in 1833 Singapore developed tremendously, and cemented the role of the European trading paradigm in the East.

Perception of Absence as Value-Driven Perception

2018 ◽  
Author(s):  
Anya Farennikova
Keyword(s):  
Cultural Values ◽  
Ring Finger ◽  
Cultural Knowledge ◽  
The Social ◽  
New Form

Experiences of absence are often laden with values and expectations. For example, one might notice that a job candidate is not wearing a tie, or see the absence of a wedding band on a person's ring finger. These experiences embody cultural knowledge and expectations, and therefore seem like good candidates for being a form of evaluative perception. This chapter argues that experiences of absence are evaluative apart from the social or cultural values they take on. They are evaluative in their core, solely by virtue of being experiences of absence. The chapter begins by explaining why certain experiences of absence should be treated as a case of genuine perception. It then clarifies the role of the evaluative states in experiences of absence. The chapter concludes by arguing that experiences of absence constitute a new form of evaluative perception, and presents the subjective–objective dichotomy in a new light.

Recruitment and Reform in the East India Company Army, 1760-1800

1975 ◽  
Vol 15 (1) ◽  
pp. 89-111 ◽  
Author(s):  
Arthur N. Gilbert
Keyword(s):  
East India Company ◽  
China Trade ◽  
Military Involvement ◽  
New Period ◽  
History Of ◽  
Rising China ◽  
The Government ◽  
The New Period

During the second half of the eighteenth century, the role of the East India Company was significantly altered. In the early part of the century, the main thrust of Company activity was commercial, but this began to change as the French challenged British interests in India and conditions on the sub-continent demanded political and military involvement. Lucy Sutherland has summed up these changes succinctly:The new period was to see a network of English control spread over the neighboring Indian territories and an expansion of territorial power which the whole history of the Company in India made inevitable but which, thanks to the clash with the French and the spectacular exploits of Clive and his colleagues, came more suddenly than anyone could have expected. The Company had long had experience of the problems of government as well as those of administration of commerce; but now (except in the rising China trade) it was those of the government which began to prevail.

scholarly journals The Expansion of Penang under the East India Company

2021 ◽  
Vol 6 (3) ◽  
pp. p31
Author(s):  
Aniba Israt Ara ◽  
Arshad Islam
Keyword(s):  
The Netherlands ◽  
East India Company ◽  
Global Trade ◽  
Malay Peninsula ◽  
Military Assistance ◽  
China And India ◽  
Strategic Location ◽  
Trading Network

This study highlights that the British had long experiences in the Malay Peninsula before Francis Light’s acquisition and development of Penang, due to the central role of Malayan ports such as Kedah, Takuapa, Langkasuka, Terengganu, Palembang, Siak, and Malacca in global trade between China and India. Under the influence of Islam, Malacca (and, to a lesser extent, Kedah) became a Muslim Sultanate and reached its peak in this trading network, which attracted European traders (and subsequent colonialism), initially from Portugal and Spain, and later France, the Netherlands, and Britain. After the East India Company attained hegemony in India, it was strongly placed to extend its power from its presidencies in Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras. The EIC’s main focus was Bengal, where the Company founded the Fort William College as its headquarters in Calcutta. As trade with China became more important, the Malay Peninsula commensurately became a more attractive destination for investment due to its closer proximity to the Chinese sea lanes, and closer access to the Indo-Malay hinterlands and their products. In 1784, the EIC sent Kinloch to Aceh but he was unsuccessful in negotiating to establish a factory there. Nevertheless, they succeeded in establishing a foothold in Malaya with Francis Light’s embassy to Riau, Kedah, and Penang. Kedah also became prosperous under the Muslim Sultanates. Many Chinese and Indian merchants were settled there, benefitting from the trade in jungle products like camphor, betelnut, bird nests, situated near the Kedah River, was identified as a strategic location. Sultan Muhammad Jiwa Zainal Abidin Muazzam Shah II of Kedah (r. 1710-1778) at that time was facing many internal as well as external conflicts. His son Sultan Abdullah Mukarram Shah (r. 1778-1797) also suffered the same fate. As a result of internal crisis and dynastic intrigues, he agreed to lease Penang to the EIC in exchange for military assistance in 1785. In July 1786, Francis Light sailed from Calcutta and reached Penang in August, and thus Penang became an EIC stronghold.

HENRY MARTYN AND ENGLAND’S CHRISTIAN EMPIRE: REREADING JANE EYRE THROUGH MISSIONARY BIOGRAPHY

1999 ◽  
Vol 27 (2) ◽  
pp. 419-442 ◽  
Author(s):  
Mary Ellis Gibson
Keyword(s):  
Domestic Violence ◽  
George Eliot ◽  
East India Company ◽  
Jane Eyre ◽  
Spiritual Quest ◽  
Military Violence ◽  
British East India Company ◽  
The World ◽  
Mission Field

IN 1814 THE YOUNG Thomas Babington Macaulay tried his hand at the couplet to memorialize one of his Evangelical family’s heroes. Henry Martyn, chaplain to the British East India Company, had died in 1812 on his way home from duties in the east. With an adolescent’s enthusiasm for battle Macaulay engaged the tropes of spiritual quest and violent conquest that accompanied the evangelical spirit. To Martyn’s efforts he attributed, “Eternal trophies! Not with carnage red, / Not stained with tears by hapless captives shed, / But trophies of the Cross!” (281). Military violence gives way to conquest in a higher sphere, the world of the mission field. Nearly a half century later George Eliot evoked Martyn’s spiritual heroism at the outset of her career as a fiction writer. In Scenes of Clerical Life, Janet Dempster finds the inspiration to reform her life by reading the Memoir of Henry Martyn. Martyn’s example nerves her to engage in self-sacrifice and is the catalyst for her return to the scene of domestic violence; in an act of self-conquest Janet assumes the role of model wife and forgiving Christian.

scholarly journals Mata Rantai Perdagangan Lada di Kalimantan Bagian Tenggara Pada Abad ke-17-18

2020 ◽  
Vol 5 (2) ◽  
pp. 113-120
Author(s):  
Endang Susilowati
Keyword(s):  
Rural Areas ◽  
18Th Century ◽  
17Th Century ◽  
East India Company ◽  
Dutch East India Company ◽  
Port City ◽  
Important Link ◽  
The Relationship

In the period of 17th  century up to 18th century, pepper was one of the important commodities of Southeastern Kalimantan. Pepper was produced by Dayak tribes in rural areas of Southeastern Kalimantan, transported through the rivers and traded in Banjarmasin, which was the most important port in the region.  Merchants from all around the globe visited Banjarmasin to trade for this commodity. This article aims to study the linkage of the pepper trade in Banjarmasin which involved pepper farmers in rural areas, Chinese and Banjar merchants as the middlemen, Sultan and court officials as the holders of privileges in pepper trade, and foreign traders (Chinese, Dutch, and the British) as the buyer of pepper in the port city of Banjarmasin. By discussing the role of each part of the link, the relationship between these parts can be seen clearly. The results of this study indicate that pepper farmers are the most disadvantaged party in this trade link, they hardly benefit from the growing trade of the pepper they produced. Meanwhile the middlemen, Sultan and court officials had enjoyed huge profits. The Sultan even used pepper as a political tool to gain the support of Dutch authorities (Dutch East-India Company) in dealing with their enemies. Another important link was the Chinese, Dutch and British merchants who competed for the pepper supplies. The Chinese traders who charged the pepper for a higher price had easier way to obtain the pepper supplies than the Dutch and British traders who were supported by their trading authorities.

Od Kalopei do Rzeczpospolitej Samorządnej. Próba charakterystyki polskich utopii socjalnych

2018 ◽  
Vol 18 (247) ◽  
Author(s):  
Michał Śliwa
Keyword(s):  
Social Justice ◽  
Social Life ◽  
Justice System ◽  
Political System ◽  
18Th Century ◽  
State System ◽  
The Social ◽  
The Times ◽  
Socialist Utopia

The research aim of this article was to analyze the socialist utopia as an idealistic inspirationin the process of democratizing the socio-political system in the perspective of two centuries;from the times of the imaging of the idealistic system picture by Wojciech Gutkowski inthe second half of the 18th century to the ancestors of Polish socialist thought, all the wayto the “Solidarity” revolution and further on, to the contemporary social life formed underthe influence of the emancipation ideas and determined by the factors of the informationrevolution and globalization processes. This is why the author of this article seeks an answerto a question, what role in the new conditions does the socialist utopia fulfill – an idealisticimpression of the social justice system, does it still have its impetus as a prospective ideaand did it not stop being an inspiration to reform the state system, does it play a role of anaxiological system in the form of a substitute on the conditions of the atrophy of the ethicalfundaments of the social life and idea secularization.Key words: social utopias, Polish socialists, “Solidarity”, system shift

scholarly journals Habit, the Criminal Body and the Body Politic in England, c. 1700–1800

2013 ◽  
Vol 19 (2-3) ◽  
pp. 83-106 ◽  
Author(s):  
Francis Martin Dodsworth
Keyword(s):  
18Th Century ◽  
Body Politic ◽  
The Body ◽  
Individual Responsibility ◽  
The Social ◽  
History Of ◽  
The Individual ◽  
The Mind ◽  
Social Circumstance

This article explores the role that ‘habit’ played in discourses on crime in the 18th century, a subject which forms an important part of the history of ‘the social’. It seeks to bridge the division between ‘liberal’ positions which see crime as a product of social circumstance, and the conservative position which stresses the role of will and individual responsibility, by drawing attention to the role habit played in uniting these conceptions in the 18th century. It argues that the Lockean idea that the mind was a tabula rasa, and that the character was thereby formed through impression and habit, was used as a device to explain the ways in which certain individuals rather than others happened to fall into a life of crime, a temptation to which all were susceptible. This allowed commentators to define individuals as responsible for their actions, while accepting the significance of environmental factors in their transgressions. Further, the notion that the character was formed through habit enabled reformers to promote the idea that crime could be combated through mechanisms of prevention and reformation, which both targeted the individual criminal and sought more generally to reduce the likelihood of crime.

scholarly journals Politik dan Ekonomi Terengganu pada Hujung Abad Ke-18: Kajian terhadap Warkah Sultan Mansur Shah I

2020 ◽  
Vol 13 (2) ◽  
pp. 271-298
Author(s):  
Abd Ur-Rahman Mohamed Amin ◽  
Keyword(s):  
Foreign Relations ◽  
18Th Century ◽  
East India Company ◽  
Diplomatic Relations ◽  
Trade Relations ◽  
Late 18Th Century ◽  
Reference Number ◽  
British East India Company ◽  
History Of ◽  
The University

This article discusses the contents of 17 letters from Sultan Mansur Shah I, the Sultan of Terengganu, are preserved in the library of the School of Oriental and African Studies at the University of London with the reference number SOAS MS 40320. Written in Malay using Arabic script, these were sent between 1785 and 1794. The contents discuss the political history of Terengganu involving foreign relations with the Siamese and the British. The Siamese were a continuous threat to Terengganu, especially after the Siamese conquest of Patani in 1785. Therefore, Terengganu sought to establish diplomatic relations with the British East India Company to protect it from the Siamese invasion. However, the attempt was unsuccessful due to the East India Company’s principle of non-involvement in Malay affairs. In terms of economy, Terengganu had trade links with Palembang, which supplied pepper and tin, as well as with ports in Java and Borneo. Terengganu also had trade relations with China and India. The Sultan of Terengganu employed a royal merchant, Saudagar Nasruddin, to manage his trade. British ships were used to carry pilgrims to Mecca through ports in Pulau Pinang and India. The letters also discuss the lineage of Sultan Mansur Shah I, which closely links him to the Johor and Patani sultanates. The entire contents of these letters have helped to provide more detailed information on the politics and economy of the Terengganu sultanate in the late 18th century.

scholarly journals Dak Roads, Dak Runners, and the Reordering of Communication Networks

2012 ◽  
Vol 57 (2) ◽  
pp. 169-189 ◽  
Author(s):  
Chitra Joshi
Keyword(s):  
Nineteenth Century ◽  
Communication Networks ◽  
Crucial Role ◽  
East India Company ◽  
Physical Strength ◽  
British East India Company ◽  
History Of ◽  
Speed Up ◽  
Popular Images

SummaryWith the expansion of its territory in India in the first half of the nineteenth century, the British East India Company increasingly felt the need to widen postal networks and speed up communications. This essay looks at the crucial role of thedauriya(mail runner) in the development of postal networks by exploring the narratives around popular images of this “traditional” communication worker. Accounts of the lives of mail runners were interwoven with stories of their extraordinary physical strength and the dangers they negotiated along the way, their encounters with tigers, and their commitment to carry the imperial mail through rain and flood. Behind such narratives lay a history of regulations, a story of the making of a “modern” postal system. This entailed an effort to rationalize the system, calculating the speed of running, ensuring regularity, projecting estimated times of travel, and enforcing contracts. This essay aims to understand the logic of these changes, and the implications of these regulations.

scholarly journals The Despotic State? : The Nature and Role of 18th Century Mughal Administration in the Great Divergence

2020 ◽  
Author(s):  
Sagnik Bhattacharya
Keyword(s):  
South Asia ◽  
Central Government ◽  
18Th Century ◽  
Economic Consequences ◽  
East India Company ◽  
Commercial Activities ◽  
History Of ◽  
Great Divergence ◽  
English East India Company

Why Europe grew rich and ‘Asia’ became poor is the substance for the fiercely contested ‘Great Divergence’ debate where the prevailing Eurocentric view posits that European exceptionalism was responsible for the former’s success. The essence of the picture painted in the arguments against ‘oriental states’ is a despotic and extractive one that hinders commercial activities. This paper tries to address this debate through looking at the nature and role of Mughal the administrative machinery and challenge image of despotic hegemony. In order to address the issue of commensurability of sources, the present author has only used European accounts and correspondences produced by the English East India Company and the Dutch VOC. The paper argues that the Eurocentric perspective essentially paints an ahistorical picture of the Mughal state by investigating European responses to the deaths of important Mughal emperors (Jahangir, Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb) and the economic consequences following it. Additionally, this paper also provides evidence of a strong role of bankers in the internal commercial system further undermining the image of the extractive state and supporting the ‘Great Firm theory’ of Karen Leonard. In conclusion, it is argued that the European-exceptionalism theory is fundamentally based on an orientalist imagination of South Asia and essentially suffers from the pitfalls of the ‘historiography of decline’ that plague the history of other ‘Asian’ empires such as the Qing and the Ottomans. Eighteenth century South Asia shows considerable similarities with early modern Europe and its commercial viability and agility does not appear to be dependent on the central government or the abilities of the emperor.

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